BEGINNER 
OULTBJY 

VALIENT  I  NE 


THE    BEGINNER    IN    POULTRY 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON    •    CHICAGO 
DALLAS   •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON  •    BOMBAY  •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD, 
TORONTO 


THE 
BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


THE   ZEST   AND    THE    PROFIT 
IN    POULTRY   GROWING 


BY 
C.    S.    VALENTINE 


THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 
1914 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1912, 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  September,  1912.     Reprinted 
March,  1914. 

\ 


Norbiooti 

J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  WHAT  MAKES  A  POULTRYMAN?                                       i 

II.     MAKING  THE  REAL  START 9 

III.  CHOOSING  AMONG  THE  BREEDS       ....      20 

IV.  HATCHING    AND    BROODING   WITH    THE    MOTHER 

HEN     .  .      33 

V.  BEGINNING  ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION        .        .        .51 

VI.  HANDLING  AND  FEEDING   THE  YOUNG  FROM  MA- 
CHINES .....        ...        -63 

VII.  STUDYING  FEEDING  VALUES   .        .        .        .        -75 

VIII.     A  STUDY  OF  JUICY  FEEDS 92 

IX.       HOW   TO    PREVENT   DISEASE 103 

X.  MOLDS,  SMUTS,  AND  BACTERIA      .        .        .        -113 

XL  MEDICINES,  DISINFECTANTS,  AND  INSECTICIDES      .     124 

XII.  METHODS  OF  CIRCUMVENTING  VERMIN  .         .        -131 

XIII.  TYPES  OF  MODERN  HOUSING.        .        .        .        .     147 

XIV.  HOME-MADE  CONVENIENCES 166 

XV.    THE  IDEAL  BIRD 177 

XVI.  LINE  BREEDING  AND  MENDEL'S  LAW     .        .        .186 

XVII.  RECORDS  FOR  FUTURE  STUDY        ....     199 

XVIII.     PROFIT  AND  Loss 211 

XIX.  COST  OF  PRODUCING  EGGS,  CHICKS,  AND  FOWLS  .     222 

XX.  STUDYING  EGGS      .......    244 

XXL  THE  FIELD  OF  THE  AMERICAN  STANDARD  OF  PER- 
FECTION, AND  THE  ASSOCIATION         .        .        .    254 

XXII.     POULTRY  SCHOOLS  . 267 

XXIII.  PRACTICAL  LAYING  CONTESTS         .        .        .        .287 


380113 


VI 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

PAGE 

XXIV.    QUALITY  IN  WIRE  FENCING 

•        303 

XXV.     DUCKS  AND  GEESE 

.        3I2 

XXVI.    THE  NATIONAL  BIRD   .        .        .        .        ... 

•        331 

XXVII.     GUINEA  FOWL  AND  QUAIL   .... 

XXVIII.     DRAWING  AND  DISMEMBERING  POULTRY      . 

•    355 

XXIX.    ADVERTISING  FANCY  .STOCK 

•    364 

XXX.     SHIPPING  TO  NEW  YORK      .... 

•    381 

XXXI.     FEATHERS  AND  THE  MOLT  .... 

XXXII.     THE  QUESTION  OF  SUPPLIES 

.    402 

XXXIII.     EFFICIENCY  THE  KEY  TO  SUCCESS 

.    411 

XXXIV.    THE  BEGINNER'S  FOES  AND  HIS  FRIENDS    . 

.    422 

GLOSSARY  OF  BREEDER'S  SPECIAL  TERMS    .     •    .        • 

•    431 

ACTING  HEADS  OF  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES  . 

•     435 

INDEX 

<l^Q 

LIST    OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

New  Jersey  Poultry  Building  Foundation         .         .        Frontispiece 

PAGE 

Sympathy       .  3 

Strength 5 

Social  Kinship,  shown  by  Pride 6 

The  Peach  Orchard  Poultry  Yard 9 

One  might  buy  Some  New-hatched  Chicks      .         .         .         .11 

Lice-killing  Machine        .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .13 

Connecticut  Field  Meeting      .         .         .         .         .         .         .15 

Picturesque  New  Jersey  Poultry  House    .         .         ...         -17 

Attractive  Open-front  Colony  House 21 

Prize  Dorking  Male 24 

White  Wyandotte  Fowls.     Typical  of  American  Ideas     .         .       25 
Cornell  Feed  Hopper       ........       26 

Dark  Cornish  Fowls 28 

Columbian  Wyandottes .31 

Buff  Fowl  Showing  Mottling  .         .         .         .         .         .         .32 

Winter  Chicks         .........       36 

Rose-comb  Brown  Leghorn  Chicks          .....       39 

The  Easiest  Egg  Tester 47 

Improved  Water  Fount 49 

Cornell  Brooder  House,  New  Jersey  Station    .         .         .         .       53 
Weak  White  Leghorn  Chicks,  Cornell  55 

Hatching  Test  Report  Chart,  Cornell       .         .         .         .  57 

Incubator  Cellar,  West  Virginia  Station  .....       59 

Ostriches  Five  Days  Old          . 67 

Cornell  Gasoline  Brooder 71 

Standard  Poultry  Feeds  .  76 

Sprouting  Oats  ;  Beet  Pulp ;  Restaurant  Waste       ...       77 
Minnesota  Flax       .........       83 

Peanut  Plant  .         . .89 


yiii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Sprouted  Oats,  Four  Inches  High    ...         .  '     .         .  .       97 

Millets    .         .         .         .         .         .         .  -    V      .         .  .       99 

Pearl  Millet     .         .         .         .  •     ..  ;       ^        .'        .        .  .     101 

Cornell  Water  Fount       .         ....         .         .  .     105 

Automatic  Grain  Feeder          .         .        .         .         .         .  .     107 

Diseased  Gizzard    .         .         .         .         .         ...  .no 

The  Best  Medicine  Chest         .         .         .         .         .         .  .     129 

"  Inspiration  is  Perspiration ".         .         .         ...  .     134 

Apple  Tree  injured  by  Meadow  Mice       .         .         . ...      «c  .     136 

Great  Horned  Owl  .         .         .         .         . "-  -   -.         .    .     .  .     137 

Sharp-shinned  Hawk       .         .         .'     :  .         .        -.         .  .     141 

Alfalfa  mined  by  Mice     .         .         .         .        .         .         .  .     143 

Carson  Meadow  Mice      .         .         .         .         .         .        .  .     144 

Adapted  Tolman  House           .         .        .                  .         .  .     151 

Roost  Platform  and  Nests       .         .         .         .         .         ...     153 

Rear  View,  West  Virginia  House     .         .         ...  .154 

Skeleton  of  Clark  House,  New  Jersey  Station.         .         .  .160 

New  Jersey  Roof  Chart  .         .         .         .         .,        .        »  .     162 

Solid  Concrete  Foundation      .         .         ...         .        .  .     164 

Cornell  Rat-proof  Feed  Hopper       .         .         .         .    .    .  .168 

Nests  in  Vertical  Series  .         .                  .         .         .         .  .     169 

Soap-box  Feed  Hopper  .         .         .         .         .         .         .  .170 

Swinging  Jail  for  Sitters           .         .         .         ...  -171 

Piano-box  Large  House  ...         .         •  .      •      .  .•  •     175 

Head  of  Rose-combed  Leghorn  Male       .         .         .         .  .     178 

White  Leghorn  Female,  Nearly  Ideal      .         .         .        '.  .     181 

Reshaping  the  Wyandotte,  through  Breeding  and  Judging  .     183 

Indian  Runner,  "  The  White  Queen  "      .         .         .         .  .184 

Campine  Hen,  Near-perfection  in  Type  .         ..       • .       •  •     189 

How  Not  to  do  It    .         .         .         .         .         i, . '      ;         .0  .     199 

Leghorns,  Weak  and  Strong    .         .         .        .        .         .  .     201 

Home-Made  Trap  Nest  Series          .         .       -.        .         .  .     204 

A  Years  Feed  for  One  Hen    .         .         .        .     '...         .  .     209 

Four  Vital  Points    .         .         .         .         .         *         •       -,  .     212 

"  The  Rosy  Side ".        .        .        .        .....  .     214 

Eastern  Cotton  Tail  Rabbit     .         .                  .         .         .  .217 

Variations  in  Retail  Prices  of  Eggs           .         .         .  .     219 

Variations  in  Cost  and  Weight  of  Eggs  .         .      '  t        .  225 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  Ix 

PAGE 

Home-Made  Fireless  Brooder          .         .         .         .         .'        .  226 

One  Month's  Egg  Product       .......  228 

Three  Systems  of  Yarding       .         .         .         .                  .    ;    .  233 

Farm  Hopper  Feeding  and  Watering  Devices          .        .         .  239 

Eggs,  Comparative  Size,  Hen  and  Pullet          .         .         .         .  247 

Feathers  Variously  Marked      .         .         .         .                           .  255 

White  Indian  Runner  Ducks  .         .     ••_-.•      ',     "   .         .'     •  .  258 

White  Laced  Red  Cornish  Cock      .         .         .     \jf  .    .     '    .  260 

Prize  Winning  Black  Minorca, '•  Perfection  "  .        ,.        facing  264 

New  Jersey's  First  Poultry  Class      .      ,  ,  " .      *    ••,    .         .         .  268 

Cornell  Poultry  Class       .         .         .     .  •.         .  ;"      .         .         .  273 

Concrete  Floor  Construction  .         .      v.         .         .         »        .  279 

Sicilian  Buttercups           .         .         .         ...         .         .  281 

New  Jersey  Long  Laying  House      .         .         ,  »      »         .         .  283 

Pen  Silver  Wyandottes  bred  Abroad        .         &      , •-".'-.         .  288 

Partridge  Rocks  in  Storrs  Contest  .         .         .   .      .         .         .  291 

Competition  Pen  of  White  Wyandottes  .         .      :  .         .         .  292 

International  Competition  Pen  Silver  Wyandottes    .         .         .  295 

Competition  Laying  House,  Storrs  .         .    •     .         .'        .         .  298 

International  Competition  Plant       .         .       '.     -    .       ,.         .  300 

Black  Orpington  Competition  Pen,  Missouri    .         .         .         .  301 

Wire  Netting  rusted  in  Roll    .         .         .         .         .         .         .  305 

Barley  growing  in  Frame         .         :.         .  «   '   .  '      .  '.      .:       .  305 

Wire  Netting  and  Drinking  Fount  .         ..        ..       ^        *         .  308 

Home-Made  Coop  .         .        ".     •    *         .         .         .         .         .  310 

Silo  for  Beets  .         .         .         ,         .                  .         .         .         .  314 

Walton  Indian  Runners  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  315 

Efficient  Duck  Houses     .         ..       r!.*, .'..'        ....  319 

New  York  Winning  Embden  Geese                  .         .         .         .  322 

Young  Embden  Geese  on  Pond 324 

White  China  Geese          .     : 327 

White  Holland  Turkeys  grown  in  Texas          ....  335 

White  Guinea  Fowl         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  340 

Quail  Chicks  feeding  from  Hand 345 

Breeding  Quail  at  Connecticut  Agricultural  College          .         .  347 

Quail  Two  Months  Old 350 

-Cooper  Chicken  Hawk 353 

Drawing  and  Dismembering  a  Fowl         .         .         .         .         .  358 


X  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Dismembering  Cuts  and  Egg  Duct  of  Female          .         .  .     361 

The  A.  L.  Clark  Poultry  House       .         .         ;"'•"".    r    .  -365 

Fancy  Stock  acquiring  Hardiness    .         .         :. ,       .         .  .     368 

Cornell  Strong  Leghorn  Chicks       .         .  >     .         .         ."  •  .     373 

An  Effective  Wind  Break        .         .       ,  ,        .        .         .  -377 

Well  Fledged  Leghorn  Chick           .         .      '..        V       .  .     382 

Mercantile  Exchange       .         .         ,,        .         .      '»        .  .     385 
Cold  Storage  Chicken     .         .  ;     • .      ...         .         ...     387 

Freshly-killed  Chicken    .         .         .         .         .        .  '    '  s  .391 

A  Starting  Feather       .  .         ....        *         .  .     395 

Ostriches  Five  Months  Old     .         .         ...      .  .  .     396 

Specimens  of  Down  Enlarged          .                 '.         •         •  .     399 

Laced  Feathers  of  Silver  Wyandotte        .         .         .        .  .401 

Automatic  Feeder -  „         .         .  .     404 

Patented  Feed  Trough    .         .         .         .      .  .         .  •-     .  ,     406 

"  Stoneburn "  Trap  Nest          .         .         .         .         ...     408 

Nitrogen  Gatherers          .         .       ....         .         .    ^     4  .     412 

Nodules  of  Velvet  Bean  .         .         ,         .         .         .         i  .     414 

Boys' Corn  Exhibit          .         .         .y      .         .         .         .  .417 

Wire  Netting  Curing  Cribs      .         .         .         .         .         .  .419 

Detail  of  Pen  Construction      .         .      " .         .      '  .         .  .     420 

Plucking  the  Ostrich        .         .       ...    -•  .      -.    .    .         .  .     423 

Social  Joys      .         .         .        ..*.*,        .  .     429 


THE    BEGINNER    IN    POULTRY 


THE    BEGINNER    IN 
POULTRY 


WHAT   MAKES   A    POULTRYMAN? 

Effect  of  Business  on  Character  —  Dealing  with  Sen- 
tient Beings  —  Sympathy  a  Necessary  Factor  —  The 
Rights  of  Animals  —  Justice  Tends  to  Profit — A  Pro- 
tector —  "  Good  Luck  "  —  Hen  Reasons 

AT  the  risk  of  seeming,  for  the  time  being,  unpracti- 
cal, I  wish  to  discuss  this  question  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  fowls  themselves.  I  believe  this  to  ^fundamen- 
tally practical. 

It  is  not  merely  the  keeping  or  even  the  breeding  of 
many  fowls  through  a  series  of  years  that  makes  a  real 
poultryman  ;  efficient,  systematic,  successful.  Students 
of  men  have  made  and  reiterated  the  statement  that 
horticulturists,  as  a  body,  are  the  finest  group  of  men  on 
earth.  This  is  the  impression  almost  sure  to  be  gained 
by  close  observation  of  gatherings  of  men  of  this  pro- 
fession, in  conference  or  convention.  But,  why  should 
horticulture  be  looked  upon  as  a  profession  more  than 
poultry  breeding  is  looked  upon  as  a  profession  ?  Why 
should  the  actual  practice  of  these  "professions,"  or,  if 
you  prefer  it,  "  trades,"  differ  in  its  effect  on  the  men 
who  follow  them  ?  Or,  if  you  are  not  willing  to  allow 

Photographs  not  otherwise  credited,  or  obviously  from  the  Experiment 
Stations,  are  by  the  Author. 

B  I 


2  TftE   BEGINNER  IN   POULTRY 

that  this  is  the  case,  what  is  the  difference  of  tempera- 
ment or  of  feeling  which  draws  a  man  to  the  one  or  the 
other?  And  why  should  the  one  elevate  the  character 
of  the  men  who  follow  it,  while  the  other  (as  is  asserted) 
tends  to  do  just  the  reverse  ? 

Both  these  occupations  lead  man  closer  to  Nature. 
But,  in  the  one,  he  handles  and  creates  new  forms  with 
living  things  which  have  not  feeling  or  response  ;  in  the 
other,  he  controls  —  as  far  as  a  human  being  may  — 
living  things  which  are  sentient,  and  which  have  what 
we  may  term  "personalities  "  which  respond  to  him,  and 
which  communicate  with  him  to  a  considerable  degree. 
This,  it  seems  to  me,  is  the  fundamental  difference,  and 
this  difference  is  what  makes  the  difference  in  the  effect 
upon  man  himself.  This  is  because,  if  a  man  does  not 
deal  out  justice  and  kindness  to  sentient  things,  he 
becomes,  in  the  very  nature  of  things,  the  less  a  higher 
being.  This  morning,  a  ten-year-old  lad  passed  my  door, 
angrily  whipping  an  old  horse  lagging  in  the  spell  of 
unprecedented  heat;  yesterday,  a  farmer's  daughter 
soused  a  too-persistent  sitting  hen  in  water  till  the  bird 
was  nearly  drowned,  to  "  break  "  her  of  the  natural  im- 
pulse. These- common  occurrences  are  unjust,  and,  be- 
cause unjust,  they  are  callousing.  And  there  are  scores  of 
ways  in  which  man  may,  and  does,  make  callous  and  bru- 
talize himself,  in  dealing  with  the  living  things  subject 
to  his  will.  This  does  not  affect  these  animals  alone,  for 
calluses  grow  and  fester,  and  the  man  who  is  cruel  to  his 
stock  becomes  insensibly  cruel  to  his  wife  and  children. 

I  have  spoken  at  the  outset  of  sympathy  as  a  necessary 
factor  in  the  successful  handling  of  sentient  things. 
This  sympathy  will  not  be  shown,  in  the  majority  of 


WHAT   MAKES    A   POULTRYMAN? 


instances,  unless  the  person  concerned  has  been  educated 
to  it ;  first  by  teaching  and  example,  then  through  train- 
ing, and  eventually  through  observation  and  study  of  the 
animals.  For 
real  sympathy  is 
not  merely  a 
chance  matter  of 
tender-hearted- 
ness ;  it  is  funda- 
mentally a  matter 
of  seeing  condi- 
tions, at  least  in 
part,  from  the 
point  of  view  of 
the  other  being. 
One  who  is  to 
deal  with  living, 
sentient  crea- 
tures, needs, 
then,  to  study 
these  creatures  as 
creatures  of  feel- 
ings and  of  rights. 
He  needs  to  ob- 
serve their  ways 
of  doing  things 
when  they  are 
free  to  do  as  they 
will ;  their  ways 
as  a  group  or  class,  and  also  as  individualities — separate 
members  of  the  group.  Indeed,  one  who  goes  much 
among  any  groups  of  animals,  with  eyes  at  all  open,  can- 


Sympathy  —  A  Necessary  Factor 


THE    BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


not  but  observe  these  many  things.  But,  to  delve  into 
the  reasons  for  certain  phases  of  group  behavior  and 
also  for  certain  individual  habits  will  render  them  far 
more  interesting  and  attractive.  The  former  can  often 
be  traced  ;  the  latter  far  less  often. 

Observation  of  the  habits  of  groups  and  of  individuals 
leads  directly  to  more  and  more  interest ;  therefore  to 
increased  sympathy,  and  to  a  sense  of  the  rights  of  even 

the  lower  animals. 
Not  until  we  have 
studied  rather  deeply 
into  the  reasons  for 
common  behavior  and 
for  exceptional  be- 
havior in  animals  sub- 
ject to  us  are  we  fitted, 
in  any  real  sense,  to 
become  complete  mas- 
ters of  their  fate.  For 
masters  of  the  beings 
within  their  posses- 
sion, men,  women,  and 
children  always  are,  as 
long  as  these  beings 
are  weaker  than  they, 
or  believe  themselves 
to  be  weaker.  The 
strength  of  man  thus 
lies  in  the  weakness  or  the  submission  of  that  which  he  com- 
mands or  controls.  It  may  be  weakness  of  character,  or  of 
will,  or  it  may  be  weakness  only  physical  (although  phys- 
ical weakness  leads  logically  to  the  other  weaknesses). 


Strength 


WHAT   MAKES  A  POULTRYMAN?  5 

The  beings  under  the  dominion  of  man  must,  then, 
appeal  to  him,  through  their  weakness,  to  his  sympathy 
and  his  sense  of  justice.  The  sympathy  of  one  man 
will  be  aroused  by  the  thought  of  a  bird  as  a  pet,  which 
his  feelings  will  not  allow  him  to  kill.  The  sympathies 
of  another  will  be  far  more  practically  shown  in  the 
kind  care  and  regular  attention  to  their  needs  which  he 
apportions  to  the  creatures  under  him.  That  this  is  pre- 
cisely what  tends  to  make  them  most  profitable  is  cause 
for  thanksgiving;  were  it  not  the  case,  life  might  be  one 
long  torture  to  the  subject  animals.  While  many  are 
too  kindly  natured  to  feel  justified  to  raise  animals  for 
the  express  purpose  of  killing  for  profit,  yet  the  dominion 
of  man  is  over  the  lower  animals,  and  the  greater  pain 
which  accrues  to  them  through  his  handling  comes  from 
his  neglect  of  their  daily  needs  and  hourly  comfort, 
rather  than  in  death ;  since  they  do  not  usually  antici- 
pate death  and  it  can  be  made  painless  by  the  use  of 
the  right  methods.  We  need  to  assure  and  reassure 
ourselves  that  it  is  especially  hunger  and  fear  and  pain 
from  which  we  are  in  duty  bound  to  defend  the  lower 
creatures,  to  whom  we  are  as  gods.  Maeterlinck  appre- 
hends and  expresses  this  attitude  of  the  creatures,  when 
he  makes  the  dog  in  the  play,  "  The  Bluebird,"  address 
the  man  as  "  My  little  god." 

.  As  the  sympathy  and  the  sense  of  a  certain  social 
kinship  is  aroused  in  the  dominator,  man,  toward  his 
underlings,  he  grows  into  the  attitude  of  a  protector  for 
justice 's  sake,  rather  than  merely  for  profit's  sake.  It 
is  at  this  point  that  every  method  of  manipulation  of 
the  flocks  turns  into  "good  luck"  in  his  hands.  His 
chicks  grow  rapidly  and  evenly ;  his  hens  sing  joyful 


6  THE  BEGINNER    IN  POULTRY 

lays  for  his  ears  and  deposit  profitable  "  lays  "  in  the 
nests  which  he  carefully  and  sensibly  provides.  It  is  a 
simple  matter,  this  of  providing  a  nest  just  to  the  hen's 
taste ;  so  simple  that  any  one  ought  to  be  able  to  do  it 


Social  Kinship  shown  by  Pride.     This,  with  Sympathy  and  Strength  common 
to  Man  and  His  Birds 

exactly  right,  it  would  seem.  Scores  of  unsympathetic 
"practical  "  people  may  tell  you  it  is  all  bosh  to  consider 
the  whims  of  the  fowls  in  matters  of  so  little  moment 
as  this.  The  hen  is  due  to  lay  anyhow,  they  will  argue, 
and  why  should  any  sensible,  practical  person  go  to  the 
trouble  of  doing  things  in  any  special  way,  just  to  please 
the  whim  of  a  stupid  hen  ? 

But,  in  the  first  place,  and  answer  enough,  the  hen  is 
not  "stupid."     There  is   nearly  always  a  well-defined 


WHAT   MAKES   A  POULTRYMAN?  7 

(hen)  reason  for  the  special  course  which, she  desires  to 
follow.  Because  it  is  a  part  of  her  nature  to  steal  aside 
and  lay  a  nestful  of  eggs  for  the  incubation  of  her  pro- 
spective brood,  she  likes  a  rather  dark  and  quiet  stow- 
away nest,  even  when  housed  under  artificial  conditions, 
and  she  likes  it  better  and  better  as  it  becomes  fuller 
and  fuller  of  eggs.  Because  of  this  innate  feeling,  she 
will  choose  a  nest  containing  a  nest  egg  before  one 
which  is  empty,  other  things  being  equal. 

But,  suppose  that  it  is  not  a  matter  of  nest  eggs. 
Suppose  that  there  is  a  full  tier  of  nests  made  comfort- 
able and  inviting,  each  with  its  dummy  egg,  and  placed 
just  where  you  want  her  to  lay ;  suppose  that  she  persists, 
as  one  hen,  though  there  may  be  a  dozen  or  more  of  her, 
in  laying  in  another,  less  desirable,  nest,  or  even  on  the 
floor  in  the  corner  ?  The  average  handler  will  be  sure 
to  "  Drat  her !  "  as  a  silly,  stupid,  and,  above  all,  obsti- 
nate good-for-nothing,  when  all  the  time  the  probable 
reason  —  and  a  perfectly  logical  one  —  for  the  bird's 
seemingly  erratic  action  is  that  the  man  has  omitted  to 
provide  a  suitable  alighting  board  in  front  of  the  nests. 
In  her  efforts  to  fly  full  tilt  directly  into  the  nest  from 
the  floor,  her  outspread  wings  strike  its  sides,  and,  fail- 
ing to  double  herself  up  into  it,  as  she  drops  back,  she 
goes  to  the  floor.  A  dozen  failures  bruise  and  discourage 
her.  After  watching  her  till  she  becomes  discouraged,  and 
obstinate  in  depositing  her  egg  in  the  floor  litter,  shall  we 
not  rather  say :  a  stupid,  unseeing  man  who  has  not 
tried  to  learn  the  needs  or  the  ways  of  the  hen,  but  has 
insisted  on  her  doing  things  in  his  way  when  circum- 
stances which  lie  Jias  provided  made  it  impossible,  or  at 
least  very  difficult,  for  her  to  meet  his  wishes  ? 


II 

MAKING   THE    REAL   START 

Waiting  on  the  Hens  —  Imprisonment  for  Life  —  Buying 
Sitters — Imperiling  Success  —  Prices  of  Hens  —  Cost 
of  Chicks  —  Quick  Product  from  Hens  —  Maturity  of 
Pullets  —  Large  Investments  Unsafe  —  Who  Furnish 
the  Failures  ? 

Now  we  strike  a  puzzle :  how  are  you  going  to  start  ? 
In  a  large,  or  a  small  way  ?  With  machines,  or  hens  ? 
Or  with  baby  chicks,  made  ready  for  you  by  some  one 
who  has  experience  ?  I  cannot  decide  this  for  you,  al- 
together, because  so  much  depends  on  what  you  are 
going  to  put  into  the  proposition,  aside  from  the  money 
investment. 

One  might  begin  with  half  a  dozen  hens,  a  dry- 
goods  box  for  a  house,  and  with  a  cracker  box  or  two 
for  nests.  One  might  be  very  intensive,  and  keep  these 
hens  shut  within  their  box  all  the  time.  That  would 
mean  that  every  morsel  of  food  and  water  and  litter 
which  they  receive  must  be  supplied  them,  and  all  the 
waste  incident  to  the  life  of  the  hen  must  be  removed 
carefully  and  promptly  by  you,  if  you  are  to  handle 
them  yourself.  Are  you  ready  for  the  task  ?  And 
what  if  you  eventually  increase  to  several  hundred 
fowls  ?  Will  you  then  be  willing  to  become  such  a 
slave  to  your  expected  money-makers  ?  Again,  are  you 
willing  to  imprison  for  life  these  sociable  helpers  of 
yours  ?  If  so,  any  poultry  supply  house  can  furnish 
you  a  book  which  will  tell  you,  in  detail,  almost  every 
move  you  must  make  in  thus  handling  the  birds.  There 

9 


10         THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

is  even  a  school  —  a  private  concern  —  where  all  these 
points  are  taught. 

If  you  are  not  willing  to  take  on  so  imperative  a  serv- 
ice, you  will  provide  a  good,  green  range  for  the  birds, 
let  them  wait  on  themselves  just  as  much  as  may  be 
during  all  open  weather,  feed  them  each  a  handful  of 
grain  once  a  day,  with  a  few  meat  scraps  from  the 
table  or  a  little  milk  instead  of  the  scraps,  if  this  is 
handier.  They  will  begin  to  lay  for  you  in  April  if 
you  have  procured  them  in  March  (and  this  is  about  as 
early  as  you  can  well  begin,  on  this  plan)  at  the  north. 
But,  it  will  be  several  weeks  before  you  will  have  any 
hens  ready  to  hatch  for  you,  so  that  you  can  do  no  early 
hatching  unless  you  can  buy  some  sitters.  This  sounds 
feasible ;  but  there  will  be  the  difficulty  of  moving  them 
to  their  new  quarters,  and  the  possibly  greater  difficulty 
of  finding  any  for  sale  at  all.  For,  at  this  special  sea- 
son, all  who  make  any  specialty  of  poultry  are  quite 
likely  to  need  all  the  broody  hens  for  their  own  work ; 
and  this,  even  though  they,  use  several  hatching  ma- 
chines. You  will  hardly  find  it  good  business  to  buy 
incubators  while  you  have  few  layers  and  little  experi- 
ence, especially  as  you  might  not  be  able  to  procure 
eggs  in  sufficiently  large  numbers.  Besides,  when  eggs 
are  not  plentiful,  they  are  likely  to  be  held  too  long  for 
best  hatching.  The  Beginner,  of  all  workers  with 
poultry,  needs  good  tools  and  good  eggs ;  else,  he  can- 
not tell  whether  any  trouble  which  arises  is  due  to  his 
own  errors,  or  to  the  eggs,  or  to  a  poor  machine. 

I  wonder  whether  you  would  not  rather  buy  some 
new  hatched  chicks  outright,  from  some  one  who  is 
known  to  have  good  ones,  and  begin  with  them  ?  You 


MAKING   THE   REAL  START  II 

might  procure  a  good  brooder,  or,  if  you  thought  it 
better  to  go  to  no  further  expense,  this  first  spring,  you 
could  raise  them  in  cracker  boxes  or  fireless  brooders. 
That  means  that  you  will  keep  them  in  the  dwelling  at 


One  might  Buy  Some  New-hatched  Chicks 

night,  if  you  begin  early  in  the  season ;  but,  you  can 
put  them  out  in  a  sheltered  place  whenever  it  is  sunny. 
It  won't  do  to  let  the  wind  blow  on  them  much,  but 
they  would  rather  be  warmed  by  the  sun,  when  it  shines 
out  warmly,  than  by  any  indoor  heat  that  could  be 
furnished. 

Will  you  get  fifty  to  start  with?  Or  twenty-five  at 
first,  and  perhaps  fifty  more  three  weeks  later?  There 
is  a  great  advantage  in  buying  chicks  in  this  way,  just 
the  number  you  can  handle  comfortably,  and  just  when 
you  want  them.  All  in  a  bunch  are  of  the  same  age 
and  have  an  equal  show,  as  far  as  it  can  be  given  them. 
There  will  be  none  older  and  much  stronger  to  crowd 
and  trample  the  young  ones,  as  is  almost  sure  to  be  the 
case  if  the  chicks  come  along  eight  or  ten  at  a  time,  and 
are  bunched  in  one  flock  after  a  few  weeks.  If  you 
want  to  try. two  or  more  lots  the  first  year,  don't  make 
the  mistake  of  letting  them  run  together.  This  is  about 


12         THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

the  worst  blunder  a  Beginner  can  make.  It  is  one  that 
probably  eighty  out  of  a  hundred  do  make,  for  lack  of 
forethought.  Perhaps  fifteen  more  of  the  hundred  do 
it  in  spite  of  warning,  because  it  is  so  much  easier,  and 
because  they  cannot  apprehend  the  vital  importance  of 
keeping  the  different  ages  separate.  The  result  is  that 
very  few  really  first-class  chicks  are  raised,  because  the 
majority  of  learners  have  thus  imperiled  their  own  suc- 
cess at  the  outset.  And  this  error  affects  them  at  every 
stage  of  the  work  from  this  period  of  early  chickhood  on. 

If  it  were  not  for  just  one  thing,  I  might  advise  you 
to  buy  two  or  three  mother  hens  with  their  broods,  for 
the  start.  But,  unfortunately,  nearly  all  sitting  hens 
have  lice.  And  when  the  chicks  have  parasites  to  fight, 
from  the  first,  you  have  a  slender  chance  to  raise  any 
really  good  ones.  The  strongest  may  keep  themselves 
pretty  free  by  vigorous  use  of  the  dust  bath  which  they 
find  in  any  plot  of  soft,  dry  earth.  But  they  cannot 
make  good  headway  against  those  on  top  of  the  head, 
which  are  so  often  found  when  they  are  taken  from 
the  nest  for  cooping.  You,  too,  must  fight  these  lice 
all  the  time.  Don't  you  see  that  the  real  question,  all 
along  the  line,  is  how  far  you  can  be  trusted  ? 

Have  you  noticed  how  almost  universally  those  who 
ask  information  ask  for  the  good  points  of  fowl,  or  ma- 
chine, or  whatever  may  be  the  subject  of  inquiry  ? 
Yesterday,  I  saw  in  horticultural  print,  a  query  as  to 
\he,  faults  of  a  certain  popular  peach.  Every  one  who 
writes  about  this  peach  praises  its  good  points.  The 
inquiry  brought  out  the  fact  that  it  had  several  very  bad 
points,  one  of  them  being  that  it  succeeded  only  in  a 
few  localities.  Its  praise,  then,  was  utterly  misleading 


MAKING   THE   REAL   START  13 

to  most  readers,  unless  the  bad  points  were  mentioned 
at  the  same  time.  With  this  thought  in  mind,  I 
am  trying  to  show  the  pitfalls  that  go  with  each 
method  of  beginning  with  poultry  raising.  There  is  a 
difficulty  with  brooder  chicks  which  the  average  Beginner 
will  not  be  expecting,  and  which  may  send  him  stum- 


"  You,  too,  must  Fight  These  Lice."     Lice-killing  Machine.     Introduce  Birds 
and  Lice  Powder,  and  Rotate 

bling  beyond  recovery  of  his  balance.  If  not  bought 
from  some  one  known  to  have  good,  free-range,  healthy, 
vigorous  stock,  these  machine-hatched  chicks  are  quite 
liable  to  develop  "white  diarrhoea,"  the  most  dreaded 
scourge  of  the  incubator  chick.  This  is  said  to  be  in- 
cipient even  in  the  egg  before  it  is  incubated,  in  some 
cases.  In  case  this  should  occur,  you  might  lose  every 
one  before  they  were  three  weeks  old. 


14         THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

The  production  of  day-old  chicks  has  become  tre- 
mendous, and  you  who  are  new  to  the  work  are  almost 
sure  to  argue  that  in  buying  chicks  you  know  exactly 
what  you  are  to  get,  while  with  eggs  you  buy  only  a 
"  chance."  It  is  quite  true  that  baby  chicks  can  be 
shipped  safely  for  some  hundreds  of  miles.  But,  as 
long  as  white  diarrhoea  has  the  upper  hand,  they  may 
be  looked  upon  as  pretty  much  of  a.  gamble,  if  incuba- 
tor-hatched. One  firm  said,  in  a  letter  in  March,  1911, 
"  We  expect  to  sell  50,000  this  coming  season"  ;  another 
returned  $4000  received  for  orders  which  it  could  not 
fill.  One  seller  says,  concerning  this  method  of  getting 
stock:  "The  buyer  receives  his  chicks  and  sees  what  he 
gets,  and  does  not  have  to  watch  the  old  hen  and  can- 
not come  back  on  the  seller  and  say  eggs  were  infertile. 
In  this  one  way  alone  the  chicks  business  is  best."  As 
a  discerning  Beginner,  however,  you  may  notice  that 
here  is  no  argument  whatever  for  you  ;  that  is,  no  argu- 
ment for  the  actual  value  of  the  chicks.  If  they  die 
after  receipt,  —  well,  you  are  a  Beginner.  Of  course,  it 
is  all  your  fault,  and  you  "  cannot  come  back  at  the 
seller!" 

On  the  whole,  though  it  is  easiest,  and  requires  less 
initial  investment,  possibly,  to  buy  chicks,  it  may  be 
safest  and  cheapest  for  you,  in  the  end,  to  start  with  the 
six  hens,  or  ten,  if  you  prefer.  You  may  not  get  chicks 
so  early,  by  this  method,  nor  can  you  have  them  all  of 
the  same  age,  unless  you  can  buy  additional  sitters  and 
set  them  all  at  once.  But  I  do  not  know  but  you  will  be 
more  certain  of  reaching  the  autumn  with  a  decent  flock 
of  pullets  to  repay  you  for  your  trouble  and  expense. 
Ten  common  hens  will  cost  you  $7.50  (if  you  are  very 


!6  THE  BEGINNER   IN   POULTRY 

lucky)  to  $10.  But,  if  you  prefer  to  begin  with  fair, 
pure-bred  birds  of  the  breed  which  you  think  you  will 
like  best,  you  may  get  the  six  layers  for  $9,  possibly, 
and  four  common  hens  for  sitters  for  $4  more.  But 
prices  now  tend  to  run  higher  than  this  for  even 
ordinary  pure  stock,  especially  in  the  spring,  when  most 
of  the  surplus  has  been  sold  and  the  supply  is  likely  to 
be  short  of  the  call. 

The  two  lots  of  chicks  which  you  considered  buying 
would  have  cost  you  anywhere  from  $7.50  up  according 
to  quality  and  your  location.  In  favorable  places,  pos- 
sibly even  a  little  less ;  I  see  them  advertised,  at  times, 
at  eight  cents  apiece,  but  this  is  rare.  The  specially 
good  point  about  starting  with  the  hens  is  that  with 
six  good  ones  you  can  count  on  about  thirty-five  eggs  a 
week  for  a  short  time,  and  with  ten  hens,  if  you  de- 
velop skill  in  feeding,  you  may  get  fifty  or  sixty  eggs 
a  week  for  a  short  time  in  spring.  Thirty-five  eggs 
a  week  would  supply  five  sitters  with  work  every  eleven 
days,  if  you  wished  to  use  them  all  that  way.  It  is 
not  wise  to  save  them  up  much  longer  than  this.  If 
you  can  get  the  sitters  for  them,  you  will  be  lucky, 
for  this  brings  your  lots  of  chicks  only  eleven  days 
apart  in  age.  You  can  sell  the  hens  for  nearly  what 
they  cost,  when  the  chicks  leave  them,  and  your  own 
layers  will  be  yielding  eggs  right  along  more  or  less 
until  the  middle  of  September,  perhaps,  giving  you 
eggs  to  sell.  You  may  get  enough  for  the  table  till 
well  into  October ;  but  November  and  possibly  Decem- 
ber will  be  months  of  all  outgo  and  no  income,  unless 
your  pullets  are  early  enough  to  begin  with  October. 
A  good  pullet  commonly  takes  six  or  seven  months  to 


1 8  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

develop,  so  that,  if  not  hatched  till  May,  you  cannot 
depend  on  them  to  give  much  yield  of  eggs  before 
November  or  December. 

I  have  purposely  taken  you  through  this  maze  of 
figures  and  possibilities,  in  order  that  you  may  see  how 
many  chances  there  are  for  you  to  make  irreparable 
errors  during  the  first  season,  and  how  necessary  it  is 
for  you  to  study  the  chicks,  the  chances,  the  pitfalls, 
etc.  It  is  almost  equal  to  Greek,  but  far  more  interest- 
ing and  profitable,  provided  only  that  you  can  be  de- 
pended on. 

The  matter  of  beginning  in  a  large  way  with  incuba- 
tors, which  demand  eggs  in  lots  of  fifty  and  upward, 
I  think  best  not  to  consider  favorably  at  all.  The  chief 
reason  is  that,  if  you  are  a  genuine  Beginner,  you  have 
not  been  tested,  and,  until  this  is  at  least  partially  done, 
it  is  decidedly  better  not  to  incur  large  risks.  Opera- 
tions on  incubator  scale,  continued  throughout  the 
spring  and  earlier  summer  seasons,  demand  a  consider- 
able investment;  as  there  must  be  brooders,  weaning 
coops,  feed  for  large  numbers,  and  housing  for  the 
winter  stock.  All  of  this  investment  must  be  made 
within  the  first  seven  months.  The  chances  are  great 
that,  if  you  should  begin  in  this  way,  you  would  meet 
with  so  much  discouragement  and  loss  that  your  ma- 
chines, coops,  etc.,  would  be  for  sale  within  a  year  or 
two.  You  could  not  get  half  price  for  them  even 
though  "little  used,"  as  there  is  very  little  call  for 
second-hand  poultry  supplies ;  all  but  Beginners  acraze 
over  poultry  know  better  than  to  buy  them.  And  most 
Beginners  will  prefer  to  start  on  a  smaller,  safer  basis. 
Besides,  everybody  is  suspicious  of  the  enthusiast  who 


MAKING  THE   REAL  START  19 

quits  too  soon,  and  this  alone  will  "  queer"  the  sale  of 
his  appliances. 

Do  not  be  deluded,  therefore,  into  getting  a  large 
lot  of  expensive  buildings  and  supplies  at  the  outset, 
before  you  know  the  real  necessities  of  the  work,  or 
what  you  really  want.  The  Beginners  who  fall  into  this 
error  furnish  most  of  the  class  known  as  "  The  Failures" 


Ill 

CHOOSING   AMONG   THE    BREEDS 

Breed  and  Class  —  Study  Classes  First  —  Making  and 
Molding  Breeds  —  The  Important  Classes  —  Which 
Standpoint  ?  —  Outstanding  Breeds  —  The  Champion 
Laying  Breed  —  Size  of  Eggs 

STRICTLY  speaking,  shape  is  the  determining  feature 
of  a  breed.  But  among  poultrymen,  the  word  "  breed  " 
is  so  often  carelessly  applied  to  varieties,  that  it  is  nec- 
essary to  know  this  habit  of  theirs  in  order  to  make  sure 
of  understanding  them  always.  The  Standard  of  Per- 
fection is  always  changing,  partly  because  new  varieties 
or  new  breeds  are  admitted  from  time  to  time,  and  partly 
because  it  is  revised  once  in  five  years.  For  this  reason, 
it  is  scarcely  wise,  in  a  book  like  the  present  one,  whose 
life  may  cover  many  years,  to  state  definitely  the  special 
requirements  of  the  Standard,  or  to  refer  to  special  con- 
tents except  in  a  general  way.  Thus,  I  may  say  that 
the  Standard  of  Perfection,  at  the  time  of  this  writing, 
contains  about  140  variety  descriptions.  Perhaps  the 
strict  meaning  of  the  word  "  breed  "  would  seem  different 
to  different  people.  Some  would  say  that  there  are 
something  above  fifty  real  breeds ;  others  would  contend 
that  there  are  more. 

The  term  "  Class,"  as  applied  to  group  units  of  similar 
kind,  is  rather  an  arbitrary  word.  But  its  key  point  is 
that  the  units  which  compose  it,  of  whatever  name  they 
may  be,  have  common  characteristics.  It  would  be  a 
puzzle  of  puzzles,  indeed,  for  a  Beginner  to  try  to  select 

20 


I 


22         THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

from  the  many  breeds  and  varieties,  if  jumbled  together, 
just  the  one  variety  which  would  best  suit  his  own  aims 
and  his  own  personal  likings  as  well.  He  may  be  ner- 
vous, and  thus  inclined  to  abhor  nervous  fowls  ;  he  may  be 
just  snappy  enough  to  abhor  a  slow  and  apparently  stupid 
variety,  etc.  How  can  one  select  from  such  a  large 
number,  with  any  degree  of  certainty  of  getting  just 
what  he  wants  ? 

Fortunately,  the  grouping  of  breeds  into  Classes  is  a 
great  help  just  here.  And  I  regard  the  Class  to  which 
a  bird  belongs  as  the  one  important  thing  for  a  Beginner 
to  study  first.  Under  each  Class,  he  will  find  placed  the 
birds  which  are  nearest  alike  in  certain  general  charac- 
teristics. If  those  characteristics  appeal  to  him,  he 
needs  to  study  more  definitely  only  the  breeds  under 
this  class,  and  the  varieties  under  these  breed  names 
which  appeal  most  to  him. 

Before  he  goes  very  far,  he  will  wonder  how  breeds 
come  into  existence,  and  who  makes  breed  laws.  For, 
each  breed  must  have  its  law,  or  it  would  soon  be  changed 
beyond  recognition,  by  the  many  breeders  into  whose 
hands  it  passes,  each  of  whom  may  like  to  mold  it  a  bit 
to  his  better  liking. 

The  making  of  a  breed  or  variety  is,  at  the  initial 
stages,  a  matter  of  individual  work ;  or,  sometimes,  of 
accident.  Sometimes,  two  or  more  people  agree  to  work 
together  to  perfect  a  certain  type  of  bird.  After  a  time, 
they  begin  to  tell  the  public  about  it,  and  when  they 
have  bred  it  to  a  uniformity  sufficient  to  comply  with 
the  rules  of  admission  to  the  Standard  of  Perfection,  — 
that  sum  of  all  poultry  law,  —  the  originator,  or  origina- 
tors, apply  to  have  it  "admitted."  Sometimes  there  is 


CHOOSING  AMONG  THE  BREEDS  23 

an  intermediate  step.  Various  breeders  may  get  together, 
form  a  Club  for  the  new  candidate,  formulate  a  Standard 
for  it  which  seems  to  them  best  fitted  for  the  ideal  de- 
velopment of  the  new  variety,  or  breed,  and  offer  both 
the  bird  and  its  Standard  for  acceptance.  If  accepted, 
this  Standard  is  incorporated  in  the  Standard  of  Perfec- 
tion, with  the  other  recognized  laws  of  the  many  breeds 
and  varieties.  This  is  done  as  soon  as  is  feasible  after 
the  formal  admission.  It  may  be  when  a  new  edition  is 
needed  ;  it  may  be  when  the  Revision  year  comes  around 
again.  Should  it  chance  to  be  formally  accepted  only 
a  year  or  two  after  a  formal  revision,  it  might  be  in  the 
Standard,  with  description,  for  some  time  before  a  spe- 
cial, ideal  illustration  appeared.  I  think  this  was  the 
case  with  the  Columbian  Wyandotte,  when  it  first  en- 
tered the  Standard  of  Perfection  after  having  complied 
with  all  the  rules  for  admission. 

The  Standard  of  Perfection  separates  the  many  vari- 
eties of  fowls  which  it  describes  into  ten  distinctive 
Classes,  before  it  reaches  the  "  Miscellaneous  "  breeds ; 
of  these,  there  are  three,  grouped  together.  Then, 
there  are  three  additional  Classes  for  turkeys,  ducks,  and 
geese. 

The  important  Classes  among  those  allotted  to  the 
domestic  hen  have  been,  for  many  years,  the  American, 
the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Asiatic  Classes.  But,  with 
the  phenomenal  rise  of  the  Orpington  fowl,  in  its  many 
varieties,  comparative  popularity  has  changed  somewhat, 
and  it  is  probably  true  that  the  English  Class,  at  the 
present  time,  stands  next  after  the  American  and  Medi- 
terranean Classes.  This  class  includes  the  very  old 
Dorkings,  the  Red  Caps,  which  have  made  little  head- 


24  THE   BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 

way  in  this  country,  and  the  Orpingtons,  which,  in  the 
1905  edition  of  the  American  Standard  of  Perfection, 
were  represented  by  only  one  variety,  the  Buff  Orping- 
tons, but  which  in  1911  can  show  three  varieties  there. 
There  are  several  other  varieties  in  England,  where  the 
breed  originated. 


Dorking  Male  from  Prize  Stock.     Representing  the  English  Class 

Suppose  that  you,  not  even  yet  a  Beginner,  it  may  be, 
but  planning  to  be  one,  are  reading  up  on  Breeds,  Classes, 
etc. ;  in  fact,  on  everything  connected  with  domesticated 
fowls.  You  will  have  made  up  your  mind,  possibly, 
whether  you  want  to  take  up  poultry  from  the  utility  or 
the  fancy  standpoint;  because  this  one  thing  is  likely  to 
be  decided  largely  by  your  financial  status  and  your 
business  leanings  and  characteristics.  This  is,  really, 
the  first  point  for  you  to  decide,  as  upon  it  must  depend, 


CHOOSING  AMONG  THE   BREEDS  25 

to  a  great  extent,  your  choice  of  a  breed.  At  least,  if 
you  decide  on  commercial  poultry,  first,  last,  and  all  the 
time,  you  may  cut  out  from  consideration  most  of  the 
breeds,  without  further  parley  with  yourself  or  any  one 
else.  The  commercial  line  has  its  own  two  divisions, 
which  are  not  wholly  sharp,  because,  even  though  one 
go  in  for  eggs  especially,  the  conditions  are  such  that 


The  Most  Typical  Representative  of  American  Ideas  among  General  Purpose 
Fowls.     American  Class.     (Courtesy  of  Mrs.  Benigna  G.  Kalb,  Texas) 

he  must  produce  more  or  less  poultry  meat  for  sale.  If 
you  are  planning  on  a  large  scale,  the  matter  of  two  or 
three  cents  a  pound  will  be  of  moment  to  you,  and  you 
will  be  careful  not  to  select  a  breed  which  has  black  pin- 
feathers.  The  Houdan,  the  Langshan,  and  the  Black 
Minorca  will  each  present  its  appeal  to  you,  it  may  be, 
but  you  will  not  listen,  because,  although  each  of  these 
has  its  "  talking  points,"  it  has  not  become  an  outstand- 
ing breed  in  this  country.  And,  when  this  is  true  of  a 
long-tried  variety,  this  one  fact  alone  is  sufficient  to  warn 


26  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

the  Beginner  to  let  it  alone.  The  commercial  growers 
of  poultry  meat  in  America  have,  in  the  great  majority, 
found  the  American  breeds  to  meet  their  needs,  and  this 
is  especially  true  if  they  desire  to  combine  meat  and  egg 
production.  In  any  case,  it  is  safe  for  you  not  to  let 
your  first  questionings  cover  any  beyond  the  American 


Cornell  Feed  Hopper  in  Active  Use.     White  Leghorns,  representing  the 
Mediterranean  Class 

varieties,  the  Orpingtons  and  the  Mediterraneans.  The 
first  two  are  sufficiently  good  general-purpose  groups, 
in  nearly  all  their  varieties,  for  any  poultryman  who 
chances  to  like  them ;  the  last  is  in  some  quarters  ac- 
credited to  be  the  champion  egg  producer  of  the  world, 
among  domesticated  hens.  All  the  Mediterranean  breeds 
are  very  superior  layers.  There  are  five  breeds,  in 
thirteen  varieties,  under  this  class.  Two  of  the  Minorca 
varieties,  and  one  of  the  Leghorn  varieties  are  black; 
which  fact  shuts  them  out  of  the  consideration  of  the 


CHOOSING   AMONG  THE   BREEDS  27 

large  producer.  The  Minorcas  have  large  size  and  lay 
a  handsome  large  white  egg ;  but  they  make  little  head- 
way, so  far,  against  the  Leghorns.  The  Leghorns, 
White,  Brown,  and  Buff,  have  a  host  of  admirers,  the 
White  being  most  popular.  All  are  prolific,  hardy,  non- 
sitting  in  instinct.  The  Standard  of  Perfection  says 
that  they  are  identical  except  in  the  distinctive  colors. 
But,  if  you  would  like  to  hear  some  comment  on  this 
point,  talk  Leghorns  with  from  ten  to  fifty  Leghorn 
breeders.  I  feel  rather  sure  that  you  will  find  none 
among  them  who  will  agree  that  the  seven  Leghorn 
varieties  are  thus  identical,  with  the  single  exception  of 
color.  Very  similar,  in  many  points,  all  will  admit  them 
to  be.  But  identical  ?  In  theory,  perhaps.  But,  not 
even  the  White  Leghorn  flocks  of  various  poultrymen 
who  have  them  in  purity  are  in  fact  identical  in  charac- 
teristics with  one  another. 

Among  the  Rose-Comb  Brown  Leghorns,  for  instance, 
there  is  a  wide  variation  in  type,  among  different  flocks. 
I  do  not  think  it  is  very  generally  known  that  there  are 
two  types.  These  are  really  very  distinct,  when  we  con- 
sider that  they  are  supposedly  bred  to  the  same  Standard 
of  Perfection.  Until  recently,  it  was  a  standing  puzzle  to 
me  that  the  authorities  should  so  often  say  that  the  Rose- 
Comb  Brown  Leghorn  laid  a  smaller  egg  than  the  White 
Leghorn.  Some  years  ago,  too,  I  sold,  through  a  poul- 
try supply  house,  a  sitting  of  eggs  from  this  breed. 
They  were  refused,  on  the  ground  that  they  were  not 
from  pure  stock,  the  proof  adduced  being  that  the  eggs 
were  not  chalky  white.  On  one  other  occasion,  I  re- 
ceived a  card,  saying :  "  Eggs  received  in  good  shape. 
Would  like  to  have  you  explain  how  the  eggs  come  to  be 


28  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

not  pure  white.  I  have  raised  Leghorns  a  number  of 
years,  and  have  always  had  pure  white  eggs."  Upon 
this,  I  wrote  to  one  or  two  poultrymen  whom  I  knew  to 


Dark  Cornish  Fowls.     In  Oriental  Class.      (Storrs  Experiment  Station) 

have  had  other  Rose-Comb  Brown  Leghorn  eggs  besides 
my  own,  inquiring  as  to  the  color  of  these  others.  One 
of  the  other  lots  was  sold  by  the  man  who,  at  that  time, 
was  winning  all  the  first  prizes  in  the  largest  show  in  the 
country.  The  replies  stated  that  all  the  eggs  seemed 


CHOOSING   AMONG  THE  BREEDS  29 

much  alike  to  their  writers,  and  I  dismissed  the  com- 
plaints as  perhaps  whims  of  the  complainants  in  question. 

But,  withal,  I  could  not  see  why  such  a  small  egg  was 
frequently  attributed  to  this  variety  ;  as,  in  my  hands,  its 
eggs  were  of  larger  average  size  than  those  from  the 
best  White  Leghorn  breeders,  three  of  whom  were  repre- 
sented in  my  stock.  In  the  spring  of  1910,  however,  I 
bought  some  eggs  for  hatching  from  a  leading  winner  at 
the  New  York  show  for  a  number  of  years  in  succession. 
These  eggs  were  very  white,  but  nearly  every  one  was 
ridged  or  abnormally  shaped  in  some  way,  and  they 
were  scarcely  more  than  two  thirds  the  size  of  the  eggs 
which  my  own  Brown  Leghorns  had  always  produced. 
Then  I  began  to  understand  why  I  received  testimonials, 
now  and  then,  saying  the  eggs  were  larger  than  the 
writers  had  expected  to  see.  The  fowls  themselves 
differ  almost  as  much.  In  the  case  of  the  producers  of 
the  chalky  eggs,  double  mating  had  been  practiced,  and 
all  the  red  color  bred  out  of  the  birds,  eggs,  feathers,  and 
all.  In  the  other  type,  single  mating  was  the  rule, 
and  the  red  showed  in  the  handsomely  colored  males, 
the  lovely  seal  brown  of  the  females,  and  the  cream-white 
rather  than  chalk-white  of  the  eggs.  All  this  does  not 
explain  why  the  chalk-white  eggs  are  so  much  smaller; 
but  the  fact  remains  that,  as  produced  by  pullets,  not 
one  of  them  from  our  hands  goes  to  a  customer  for  table 
eggs,  as  we  feel  it  an  imposition  on  the  buyer  to  offer 
them  even  to  this  kind  of  customer.  I  think  this  type 
must  be  largely  responsible  for  the  well-known  lack  of 
size  in  "  grocery  eggs." 

In  the  matter  of  prize  winning  in  public  competition, 
the  Rose-Comb  Brown  Leghorn  holds  the  breed  prize 


30  THE    BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

for  most  profit  above  cost  of  feed  and  greatest  average 
number  of  eggs  for  all  in  competition  ;  most  of  the  best 
prizes  other  than  this,  for  some  years  in  succession,  have 
gone  to  the  White  Leghorns.  Successive  contests  have 
reaffirmed  results  to  such  an  extent  that  the  manager  of 
the  birds  in  competition  has  reported  his  conviction  that 
the  best  layers  are  within  the  Leghorn,  Orpington,  and 
Wyandotte  breeds.  These  results  are  reported  from 
the  other  side  of  the  globe.  A  report  said  to  be  from  a 
government  poultry  expert  credits  a  White  Leghorn  pul- 
let with  152  eggs  in  six  months,  and  a  Silver  Wyandotte 
hen  with  193  eggs  in  her  second-year  test.  This  report 
comes  from  New  Zealand,  where  women  have  the  suf- 
frage. Whether  this  makes  any  difference  in  the  poultry 
reports,  tradition  as  yet  sayeth  not,  but  it  is  generally 
conceded  that  hens  lay  better  in  this  part  of  the  world 
than  they  do  in  America. 

It  may  be  worth  your  while  to  fix  firmly  in  mind  one 
dictum  of  the  American  Standard  of  Perfection,  to  the 
effect  that  the  most  useful  specimens  of  the  Leghorn 
breed  are  those  which  approach  nearest  in  size  and  also 
in  shape  to  the  requirements  of  the  Standard.  If  this  be 
true,  it  disposes  at  once  of  your  idea  that  because  you 
are  to  breed  only  for  utility  purposes,  you  will  not  need 
the  Standard.  I  hope,  however,  that  the  day  is  not  far 
distant  when  separate  Breed  Standards  may  be  available, 
at  least  for  all  the  more  important  breeds.  Such  com- 
pendiums  could  be  sold  cheaply,  and  would  meet  a  brisk 
demand. 

In  choosing  a  fancy  breed,  remember  these  vital 
points  :  — 

(a)   A  new  breed  gives  more  culls  than  an  old  one. 


32          THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

(b)  A  parti-colored  breed  is  more  difficult  to  breed  to 
perfection  than  one  of  solid  color. 

(c)  A  buff  breed  is  more   difficult  to  breed  than  it 
appears  to  be,  mixture  of  breeding  color  leading  to  mot- 
tling of  shades ;  and  fading  of 
older  plumage  giving  a  similar 
appearance     when     any     new 
feathers  are  present. 

(d)  A  white  breed  is  difficult 
to  breed  chalk-white. 

(e)  A  red  breed  gives  difficul- 
ties  somewhat  similar  to  those 
connected  with  buff  birds. 

(/)  A  black  breed  tends  toward 

Buff  Birds  often  Show  Mottled 

Shades  purple  sheen  instead  or  the  com- 

monly desired  greenish  sheen. 

(g)  The  white,  the  red,  and  the  buff  breeds  are 
usually  higher  in  popularity  than  black  or  parti-colored 
breeds. 

These  points  may  be  vital  to  the  Beginner  who 
wishes  to  become  a  fancier.  Too  often  he  learns  then 
by  making  wrong  choices,  which  he  must  correct  later. 


IV 


HATCHING   AND   BROODING   WITH   THE 
MOTHER    HEN 

The  Right  Kind  of  Eggs  —  Deterioration  in  Eggs  —  The 
Fierce  Sitting  Hen  —  The  Novice  Learning  —  "Made 
to  Sell  to  Amateurs  "  —  You  and  the  Hen  —  Handling 
the  Sitters  —  Good  Quarters  for  Sitters  —  Nests  for 
Sitters  —  Warding  off  Difficulties  —  Moving  the 
Broody  Hen  —  Testing  —  Brooding 

WHEN  one  loves  fowls,  it  is  most  fascinating  work  to 
keep  company  with  them  through  the  various  phases  of 
their  life  history,  as  it  develops.  Most  people  approach 
it  backwards,  making  acquaintance  with  the  matured  bird 
first,  the  infant  and  developing  progeny  later.  Every 
year,  every  month,  — almost  every  day,  —  there  is  some- 
thing to  learn.  Even  after  one  has  been  a  poultryman 
almost  a  lifetime,  he  will  still  learn  new  facts,  if  he  be 
open-minded  and  open-eyed. 

When  one  is  to  hatch  with  hens,  it  is  one  of  the  nice 
tasks  to  make  sure  that  the  right  kind  of  eggs  in  the 
proper  number  are  ready  and  as  fresh  as  possible,  just 
at  the  right  time.  Because  one  may  be  uncertain  as  to 
just  when  the  hens  will  be  ready  to  sit,  eggs  may  chance 
to  be  kept  on  hand  awaiting  their  pleasure,  during  several 
weeks.  During  all  this  time,  but  especially  after  the 
first  ten  days  of  holding,  these  eggs  are  deteriorating. 
Experiments  by  Station  workers  have  shown  us  the  per- 
centage of  deterioration  found  by  these  workers.  This 
D  33 


34  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

may  vary,  and  would  vary  with  the  temperatures,  and 
perhaps  with  other  variations  in  handling,  but  these 
figures  may  be  taken  as  fairly  showing  the  average  facts 
when  eggs  are  well  kept  in  favorable  temperatures. 
The  Cornell  Station  found  that,  after  three  weeks'  hold- 
ing, the  hatch  was  12  percent;  after  five  weeks,  6  per 
cent.  The  chart  gives  other  percentages  found. 

Of  all  the  fearsome  lions  in  the  way  of  the  genuine 
Beginner  with  poultry,  none,  I  think,  is  so  fierce  and 
forbidding  as  the  sitting  hen.  Forbidding,  in  fact,  as 
you  feel  certain  when  she  warns  you,  with  frequent  and 
shrill  threatenings,  to  keep  a  safe  distance.  Fierce, 
according  to  breed  and  individual  disposition,  as  she 
attacks,  with  wing  and  beak,  the  thief  who  would  touch 
her  precious  chicks ;  actualities,  or  possibilities  only, 
though  they  be.  The  question  as  to  how  to  handle  the 
sitting  hens  is  possibly  the  commonest  of  all.  It  comes 
from  nearly  every  Beginner  whose  previous  life  has  not 
been  brought  into  touch  with  poultry  except  at  the  table 
end.  And,  strangely  enough,  it  is  one  most  frequently 
neglected  by  writers.  It  is  difficult,  as  I  have  found  by 
trying,  for  one  who  has  always  known  about  fowls  and 
their  handling,  to  imagine  the  state  of  mind  of  one 
who  knows  nothing  at  all  about  their  ways  and  needs. 

Poultry  workers  are  a  unit  on  one  point,  at  least,  viz. 
that  failure  will  be  almost  assured  if  the  sitter  is  left  to 
her  duties  in  the  company  of  the  other  birds.  Good 
practice  universally  favors  moving  the  sitter  to  a  quiet, 
secluded  place,  comfortably  warm  during  February  and 
March,  and  comfortably  cool  during  the  heated  term. 
Though  I  have  never  seen  this  statement  made,  my 
repeated  experiences  convince  me  that  a  good  hatch 


HATCHING  AND  BROODING  WITH  MOTHER  HEN   35 

depends  very  largely  on  the  comfort  of  the  sitter.  If 
she  is  ailing,  or  harbors  vermin,  or  even  if  her  nest  is  not 
properly  built,  she  will  be  so  uneasy  as  to  imperil  the 
hatch.  Even  if  she  is  thin  in  flesh,  she  is  not  so  likely 
to  give  a  good  hatch  as  is  the  fat  hen.  Breeds,  varieties, 
and  individuals  differ  in  this  matter,  but  the  average  hen 
in  good  condition,  with  a  well-made  nest,  and  no  disturb- 
ing conditions,  has  a  good  chance  to  bring  a  good  hatch 
from  good  eggs.  Those  varieties  which  have  Asiatic 
blood,  or  this  blood  combined  with  Mediterranean 
(a  common  combination),  may  be  uncertain  in  their 
individual  tendencies.  Some  will  be  good  sitters  and 
mothers,  some  poor ;  the  more  purely  of  Asiatic  blood, 
the  more  uncertain,  clumsy,  and  generally  irritating  they 
may  be.  Such  hens  may  take  "  the  sitting  fever "  so 
hard  that  they  will  not  eat  for  the  first  week;  some 
never  eat  properly  while  sitting.  This  is  one  chief 
reason  why  a  sitter  should  be  in  good  condition  when 
her  task  begins.  Else,  she  will  become  but  skin  and 
bone  in  the  course  of  the  month  which  is  near  the  real 
sitting  period ;  even  though  hens'  eggs  need  but  2 1 
days'  incubation,  the  days  consumed  in  moving  and 
settling  the  hen,  and  the  two  or  possibly  three  days 
before  it  is  wise  to  attempt  to  remove  her  with  her 
chicks  will  nearly  make  the  month. 

Practically  all  the  large  and  the  intermediate  breeds 
have  more  or  less  of  Asiatic  blood.  Many  of  those 
which  do  not  are  non-sitters.  The  White  Wyandotte 
is  the  best  sitter  and  mother  with  which  I  am  familiar. 
These  are  a  little  more  easily  moved  than  others,  al- 
though hens  of  most  breeds  can  be  handled  almost  at 
will,  if  one  know  how. 


36  THE   BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 

Webster's  Dictionary  says  that  the  word  "broody," 
meaning  "  inclined  to  brood,"  is  rare.  I  think  his  inti- 
mates were  not  poultry  people.  I  use  the  word  "sitter" 
mostly ;  but  many  always  speak  of  "  broody  hens  "  and 
even  use  the  word  as  a  noun,  speaking  of  the  hen  as  a 
"broody."  "Brooding,"  proper,  is  warming  and  shel- 
tering the  chicks  after  hatching. 


Winter  Chicks  in  Large  Open  Shed.     Columbian  Mother.     Columbians  Have 
Some  Asiatic  Blood 

There  are  people  who  hatch  with  the  incubator  and 
brood  with  the  hen.  Others  have  a  different  idiosyn- 
crasy, and  hatch  with  hens,  to  bunch  several  broods 
together  and  brood  with  the  wooden  mother.  They 
believe  that  they  do  the  work  with  less  trouble,  or  with 
better  ultimate  success,  than  when  working  in  the  regu- 
lation way.  Yet,  in  doing  this,  they  but  add  the  disad- 
vantages of  both  methods  together;  for  their  hen-hatched 
brooder  chicks  will  have  lice  and  their  incubator-hatched 
chicks,  brooded  with  the  hen,  will  have  been  subjected 
to  every  handicap  that  may  come  from  machine  hatch- 
ing, before  the  hen  is  given  a  chance  to  show  what  she 


HATCHING   AND    BROODING   WITH   MOTHER   HEN      37 

can  do.  For  this  reason,  it  seems  to  me  that  these 
methods  are  to  the  last  degree  inconsistent  and  unde- 
sirable. 

The  hen-hatched  and  hen-mothered  chick  is  at  the 
least  free  from  the  handicaps  which  are  almost  univer- 
sally, at  the  present  time,  conceded  to  weight  down  the 
incubator  chick.  The  hen  starts  fairly,  and  the  handler, 
if  the  right  kind  of  a  student,  will  really  learn  more 
pertaining  to  his  business  by  hatching  with  hens,  while 
he  is  still  a  novice,  than  he  can  possibly  learn  through 
the  use  of  the  machine.  One  significant  quotation  from 
the  manufacturers  of  one  of  the  modern  incubators 
may  illumine  the  mind  of  any  Beginner.  'They  say  : 
"  Fully  two  thirds  of  the  incubators  made  each  year 
are  made  to  sell  to  amateurs  and  Beginners.'"  It  is 
added  that  such  machines  are  never  seen  on  the  sol- 
idly established  places,  where  the  workers  "  know  the 
ropes."  But  they  are  sold  by  the  thousands  to  Begin- 
ners, who  fail  with  them  and  quit  the  work,  or  else  get 
decent  machines  later,  when  they  have  gained  some 
expensive  experience.  It  is  to  save  the  Beginners  from 
most  of  this  expensive  experience  that  this  book  is  writ- 
ten, by  one  who  has  been  through  the  experience  school. 

If  you,  reader,  grasp,  at  the  outset,  this  idea  that  a 
large  proportion  of  the  very  cheap  incubators  are  virtual 
traps  to  get  your  money,  you  will  be  far  more  ready  to 
give  the  hen  a  little  sympathy  in  the  place  of  vitupera- 
tion, or  at  the  least  to  make  some  allowance  for  her 
when  you  are  tempted  by  poor  results  to  lay  all  the 
blame  upon  her.  I  cannot  too  strongly  impress  it  upon 
you  that  you  and  the  hen  are  to  do  team  work,  and  that 
if  you  do  your  part  wisely  and  well,  adding  the  full 


38  THE  BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 

quota  of  brains  to  the  combination,  you  can  overcome 
her  lacks  very  largely,  and  the  team  will  win  out  to- 
gether. But  I  wish  to  say  this  very  plainly  :  If  your 
brains  will  bring  you  more  money  and  more  satisfaction 
in  some  other  combination,  you  are  committing  only 
folly  to  cast  in  your  lot  with  poultry,  unless  it  becomes 
a  matter  of  health.  I  think  this  is  the  rock  on  which 
many  poultry  raisers  split.  If  the  business  becomes 
large  enough  to  furnish  a  living  income,  it  will  take  a 
man's  time,  and  he  must  ponder  well  whether  or  not 
this  is  the  best  investment  of  his  time  and  strength,  all 
things  considered. 

It  is  in  handling  the  hens  which  are  to  perform  the 
service  of  incubators  for  you  that  the  knowledge  of  hen 
nature  on  which  I  have  so  strongly  insisted  will  early 
and  freely  be  drawn  upon.  It  is  usually  essential  that 
the  sitters  be  moved  to  a  special  brooding  apartment, 
and  one  who  does  not  understand  a  hen  can  seldom 
move  her  successfully,  for  use  as  a  sitter.  The  Medi- 
terraneans, being  "non-sitters,"  do  not  often  manifest 
the  sitting  instinct,  and  it  is  common  belief  that  when 
they  do,  they  are  fickle  and  unreliable.  However,  if 
handled  by  one  who  knows  how,  most  of  them  prove 
as  reliable  as  those  of  the  heavier  breeds.  And,  when 
not  too  fussy,  they  make  the  best  of  mothers  for  the 
baby  chicks.  One  who  reasons  on  the  subject  will 
easily  see  in  advance  that  a  nervous,  flighty  breed  like 
most  of  those  in  the  Mediterranean  Class,  could  not  be 
expected  to  make  as  good  sitters  and  mothers  under  all 
circumstances,  as  would  the  hens  of  quieter  nature. 
Especially  is  this  true  under  the  close  surveillance  of 
modern  methods.  In  some  circumstances,  —  for  in- 


HATCHING  AND  BROODING  WITH  MOTHER  HEN 


39 


stance,  when  a  hen  was  raising  her  brood  alone,  out  in 
the  fields,  —  a  bird  of  the  Leghorn  or  Game  type,  which 
would  fight  fiercely  for  its  young,  might  prove  better 
than  a  bird  of  the  more  sluggish  breeds.  And  there  are 
some  kinds  of  eggs,  notably  those  of  pheasants,  for 
which  a  light-weight  sitter  is  usually  considered  very 
superior.  The  Bantam  breeds  are  sometimes  thus  used. 


Rose-Comb  Brown  Leghorn  Chicks.     A  Nervous  but  Sprightly  Breed 

The  "  apartment  house "  for  the  sitters  does  not 
need  to  be  made  to  order,  if  it  have  natural  advantages. 
Early  in  the  season,  it  needs  to  be,  though  warm,  well 
ventilated.  Later,  it  needs  to  be  cool,  and  even  better 
ventilated.  The  loft  of  a  barn,  or  an  airy  cellar,  may  fur- 
nish good  conditions  early  in  the  season.  Later,  they 
may  become,  the  latter  too  close  and  the  former  too  hot, 
even  to  the  extent  of  ruining  the  hatches.  I  often  use 
the  second  floor  of  the  barn  for  early  hatches,  although 
it  is  not  very  convenient ;  the  main  floor  or  the  barn 
cellar  does  very  well  for  the  later  ones.  If  no  such 
good,  secluded  place  is  ready  to  hand,  one  may  then, 
with  a  clear  conscience,  spend  a  little  money  to  prepare 
a  special  room  for  the  sitters.  Such  a  room,  at  its  best, 
is  so  placed  that  it  will  be  sheltered  from  the  heaviest 


40  THE  BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 

winds,  yet  in  a  sufficiently  airy  location.  It  is  in  shed 
form,  at  least  as  far  as  being  open  on  one  side  is  con- 
cerned, and  it  is  placed  in  at  least  partial  shade.  In- 
deed, if  small,  it  may  be  movable,  so  that  it  may  have 
more  shade  as  the  season  advances.  To  my  mind,  it 
will  be  decidedly  better  without  a  board  floor,  provided 
that  you  raise  the  dirt  floor  sufficiently ;  storms  must 
not  flood  it  with  surface  water.  Dirt  floors  are  usually 
filled  in- to  the  top  of  the  sills,  when  there  are  sills. 

The  nests  may  be  made  in  a  series,  half-a-dozen  or 
less  being  united.  These  are  less  trouble  to  move 
about  than  the  detached  nests.  An  invalid  might  find 
the  detached  nests  better,  because  lighter  to  handle.  It 
is  decidedly  better  to  have  the  nests  open  at  the  front, 
rather  than  at  the  top,  as  the  hens  often  break  eggs  in 
stepping  down  into  the  latter  kind.  To  make  a  series, 
seven-eighths  by  twelve-inch  material  may  be  used  for 
ends  and  partitions,  half-inch  stuff  for  the  tops  and 
backs.  Indeed,  they  may  be  all  in  skeleton  form  but 
the  back,  if  desired ;  but  in  practice  we  find  it  better  to 
have  the  tops  solid.  A  three-inch  strip  will  make  the 
front  firm  enough,  and  retain  the  eggs.  This  is,  of 
course,  nailed  across  the  lower  front  of  the  series.  One 
may  get  almost  the  same  results  by  using  cheap  cracker 
or  soap  boxes,  provided  only  that  they  can  be  had  in 
the  right  sizes.  The  size  needed  will  vary  with  the 
breed,  but  the  general-purpose  hen,  weighing  about  six 
pounds,  will  need  a  nest  about  seventeen  or  eighteen 
inches  long,  and  at  least  a  foot  deep.  If  the  nest  is 
shallow  from  front  to  rear,  the  hen  will  sit  sidewise  al- 
ways, but  she  cannot  be  so  comfortable  as  in  a  nest 
which  permits  her  to  assume  any  desired  position.  I 


HATCHING  AND  BROODING  WITH  MOTHER  HEN   41 

think  the  one  worst  mistake  made  by  the  majority  of 
poultry  handlers,  even  those  who  are  not  Beginners,  is 
to  make  the  nests  and  coops  too  small.  A  foot  added 
to  the  length  and  width  of  a  small  coop  may  double  its 
capacity  and  more  than  double  the  possibilities  of  secur- 
ing a  well-raised  brood. 

In  speaking  of  depth,  above,  I  meant  depth  from 
front  to  rear.  The  actual  depth  of  the  nest,  which  car- 
ries the  eggs  to  be  hatched,  is  really  one  of  the  impor- 
tant points,  taken  in  conjunction  with  its  shape.  Upon 
these  two  points  often  rests  the  fate  of  the  expected 
brood.  If  you  ask  me  what  is  the  one  thing  most  to  be 
feared  in  connection  with  the  sitting  hen,  I  shall  be 
compelled  to  answer,  "  Broken  eggs."  It  is  this  that 
leads  to  every  other  evil.  It  fouls  both  hen  and  nest, 
and  this  leads  to  attacks  of  vermin.  It  closes  the  pores 
of  the  eggs  so  that  many  chicks  are  almost  sure  to  die 
in  the  shell.  With  many  chicks  dead  in  the  shell,  and 
the  rest  swarming  with  lice,  what  chance  have  you  left  for 
success  ? 

There  are  three  things  which  you  can  do  to  ward  off 
these  evils ;  these  three  things  are  worth  more  than  all 
the  after  work  of  every  kind  that  you  can  possibly  give. 
You  can  make  the  nest  of  such  shape  in  the  bottom  that 
the  eggs  wilt- neither  lie  upon  their  fellows,  nor  roll  away 
from  them  and  out  from  under  the  sitter ;  you  can  pow- 
der the  hen  carefully  with  insect  powder  at  the  begin- 
ning of  each  week  of  incubation,  holding  her  head 
downward,  and  making  sure  that  the  moderate  amount 
of  powder  used  works  down  to  the  skin  where  the  lice 
hide ;  you  can  select  your  eggs  very  carefully  for  firm, 
substantial  shells.  If  you  do  these  three  things,  feed 


42  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

and  water  properly,  and  give  her  fertile  eggs,  you  will 
usually  have  no  need  whatever  to  berate  your  sitting 
hen.  I  should  warn  you  again,  however,  that  the  con- 
dition of  the  hen  at  the  beginning  of  the  hatch  is  a  most 
important  point.  Some  of  your  hens  will  not  make  good 
hatchers  because  their  temperature  is  too  low,  especially 
early  in  the  season.  A  hen  that  is  too  fat  will  be 
clumsy  ;  but  one  in  high  condition,  plump  and  in  finest 
health,  will  be  the  one  that  will  usually  give  you  the 
best  hatches,  other  things  being  equal. 

Your  sitters  should  be  kept  quiet,  and  be  subject  to 
no  interference,  either  from  other  birds,  or  from  chil- 
dren or  adults  who  are  not  their  regular  attendants. 
They  should  leave  the  nest  at  least  once  a  day,  for  feed 
and  water.  Most  people  remove  them  all  at  the  same 
time  during  the  morning  round,  in  order  to  save  uncer- 
tainties, and  see  that  they  all  get  back  properly.  This 
is  one  of  the  regular  morning  chores.  It  is  altogether 
better  to  start  several  sitters  at  the  same  time.  If  eggs 
are  strongly  fertile,  from  a  good  even  lot  of  hens,  you 
will  have  a  fine  bunch  of  chicks,  all  of  similar  age  and 
strength,  so  that  they  start  fair,  at  least,  if  from  good  stock. 

If  anything  is  wrong  with  the  eggs,  as  shown  at 
testing  time,  the  good  eggs  can  be  divided  among  a 
part  of  the  hens,  and  fresh  clutches  given  to  the  rest, 
thus  saving  their  time.  I  would  not  give  one  hen  more 
than  eleven  hens'  eggs  during  February  or  March,  at 
the  north ;  but  from  April  I  onward,  it  is  usually  safe 
to  use  thirteen,  and  large  hens  will  cover  fifteen  nicely. 
But  one  should  always  consider  that  the  hen  must  move 
her  eggs  about  in  the  nest  continually.  Therefore,  the 
more  eggs  she  has,  the  greater  are  the  chances  of  acci- 


HATCHING  AND   BROODING   WITH  MOTHER  HEN      43 

dent  in  newly  placing  them  and  therefore,  also,  the  need 
for  a  little  "  play  "  of  the  eggs;  if  they  lie  too  closely 
together,  it  will  be  difficult  to  change  them  about ;  if 
the  nest  is  too  large,  they  will  roll  too  freely.  It  is  wise 
to  let  the  hen  shape  the  nest  well  before  more  than 
one  or  two  dummy  eggs  are  put  in ;  then  the  size  which 
conforms  to  her  body  will  determine  how  many  she  can 
cover  well.  All  outlying  empty  corners  should  be  filled 
with  the  nesting  material. 

Speaking  of  the  dummy  eggs  reminds  me  that  I  have 
omitted  to  describe  the  best  way  to  move  the  broody 
hen  from  the  laying  house  to  the  sitting  apartment. 
The  first,  and  perhaps  the  chief  point,  is  to  let  her  grow 
to  be  a  determined  sitter  before  you  attempt  to  move 
her.  Not  even  the  most  experienced  handlers  can  move, 
with  uniform  success,  hens  that  are  newly  broody.  Let 
them  remain  on  the  laying  nest  about  two  or  three  days, 
or  till  the  sitting  fever  is  fully  established  ;  then,  having 
prepared  the  nest,  remove  the  hen  carefully  and  quietly, 
just  at  dusk,  to  the  new  location.  Give  her  some  dummy 
eggs,  and,  if  the  nest  be  a  detached  box,  face  it  toward 
the  wall,  leaving  only  sufficient  space  to  give  the  bird 
air.  About  twenty-three  hours  later,  rotate  the  box, 
offer  feed  and  water,  and  let  her  come  off  of  her  own 
initiative,  if  she  will  do  so.  If  not,  take  her  off.  She 
will  then,  probably,  first  become  aware  that  everything 
has  changed ;  she  is  in  a  strange  place !  She  will 
probably  cackle,  in  great  consternation,  and  may  attempt 
to  fly  out.  Do  not  interfere  with  her  in  the  least.  As 
dark  comes  on,  she  is  rather  likely  to  look  about,  see 
the  eggs,  and  scramble  on  to  the  nest.  If  not,  replace 
her,  and  face  the  box  again  toward  the  wall.  Repeat 


44  THE   BEGINNER  IN   POULTRY 

the  process  on  the  next  afternoon,  just  before  dusk, 
and  each  day  thereafter  until  she  goes  back  of  her  own 
accord.  Then  leave  the  box  facing  outward,  and  after 
one  more  day  she  may  safely  have  the  real  eggs  which 
she  is  to  incubate.  If  you  give  her  the  good  eggs  when 
first  moved,  it  is  your  risk. 

If  the  nests  are  in  a  series,  the  procedure  is  the  same, 
except  that  the  box  cannot  readily  be  faced  toward  the 
wall.  In  such  cases  we  throw  a  loosely  woven  phos- 
phate or  feed  bag  over  the  front  of  the  nest.  Should 
the  hen  prove  obstinate,  it  may  become  necessary  to 
use  a  board  to  shut  her  in  ;  or,  the  series  can  be  made 
with  a  wire  netting  front,  which  opens  as  a  door,  all  in  one 
piece.  This  is  probably  the  best  plan,  for  one  then 
knows  just  where  his  sitters  are,  all  the  time.  If  the 
nests  are  of  separate  boxes,  with  board  floors,  I  usually 
throw  in  two  spadefuls  of  fine  moist  earth  before  adding 
the  generous  armful  of  soft  hay,  which  makes  the  best 
nest.  I  often  use  excelsior,  but  this  makes  a  very  poor 
nest  unless  one  is  careful  to  pull  and  fluff  it  till  there  is 
not  a  knot  or  lump  left.  Any  bunch  in  the  bottom  of 
the  nest  makes  much  trouble.  The  rim  of  the  nest  is 
very  important.  The  hen  likes  it  high,  so  that  she  may 
snuggle  deep  into  it.  This  is  good,  if  one  does  not  make 
it  so  high  that  she  tends  to  break  eggs  when  returning 
to  the  nest  after  absence. 

Again  I  say,  study  the  hens.  Knowledge  of  their 
habits  and  likings  will  help  you  out  of  nearly  every  diffi- 
culty. Lack  of  it  will  keep  you  always  an  unskillful 
poultryman.  Individuals  will  be  exceptions  that  prove 
the  rule  ;  but  as  a  flock,  the  birds  will  have  the  same 
general  tendencies. 


HATCHING  AND   BROODING   WITH  MOTHER  HEN      45 

There  are  several  so-called  "  natural "  systems  of 
handling  sitters,  the  gist  of  them  being  that  the  hens 
are  confined,  together,  in  a  system  of  nests  built  as  a 
series,  yet  each  having  its  own  little  run,  so  that  no  hen 
may  be  interfered  with,  and  none  can  get  on  the  wrong 
nest,  —  an  unfortunate  habit  with  some  hens  which  is 
responsible  for  a  good  percentage  of  lost  "  sittings  "  of 
eggs.  As  the  process  of  incubation  must  be  practically 
continuous,  and  at  a  sustained  and  even  temperature, 
the  sitting  hen  must  leave  the  nest  but'briefly.  Gener- 
ally speaking,  the  eggs  should  not  become  so  cold  that 
they  feel  cold  to  the  touch.  From  the  second  to  the 
twelfth  of  the  twenty-one  days  required,  however,  the 
danger  of  a  fatal  outcome  from  too  long  cooling  is  con- 
siderably greater  than  it  is  after  the  chick  is  well  formed 
in  the  egg,  and  generating  animal  heat.  Near  the  end  of 
the  period,  I  have  known  eggs  to  be  left  overnight  by 
the  hen,  and  still  hatch  well.  One  does  not  care  to 
assume  the  risk  voluntarily,  however. 

One's  "  Jack-at-a-pinch  "  system  may  consist  only  of 
the  needed  nests  placed  near  enough  together  to  be 
handily  cared  for,  in  any  vacant  room ;  or  in  a  rough 
shed  under  a  spreading  tree  when  it  becomes  warm. 
The  crucial  point  is  that  the  hens  shall  be  under  such 
control  or  surveillance  that  they  shall  not  be  able  to 
"  mix  those  children  up  "  to  the  extent  of  leaving  any 
without  warmth,  or  to  give  a  surplusage  of  two  or  more 
mothers  to  one  clutch  of  eggs  while  others  chill.  Neither 
must  they  fight  for  place. 

Plain,  nutritious  feed  and  water  and  a  bath  are  all  the 
sitter  needs  daily,  except  to  see  that  she  "  stays  put." 
Whole  corn  and  grass  or  clover  are  by  far  the  best 


46  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

feeds  for  the  sitting  hen.  With  these  and  careful  at- 
tention, she  will  be  in  better  condition  at  the  end  of 
incubation  than  when  beginning.  A  dust  bath  will  be 
her  great  delight  and  help,  throughout.  If  eggs  are 
not  strongly  fertile,  time  can  be  saved  by  setting  three 
hens  at  once,  and  giving  the  fertile  eggs  to  two,  reset- 
ting the  third  after  the  first  test.  I  prefer  always  to 
set  two  to  four  hens  at  once,  if  conditions  permit  this. 
The  question  of  resetting  after  a  full  period  is  one 
which  often  bothers  the  Beginner.  In  a  poultry  paper, 
I  recently  saw  the  proud  announcement  that  the  author 
of  it  (presumably  a  Beginner)  has  kept  one  hen  sitting 
from  March  to  September.  So  far  from  being  a  matter 
of  congratulation  does  this  seem  to  me  that  I  feel  like 
rebuking  sharply  any  one  who  thus  practices  cruelty  to 
the  helpless  in  his  power.  A  fat  hen  may,  on  occasion, 
sit  twice ;  this  will  mean  not  less  than  seven  successive 
weeks,  and  probably  more.  But  I  think  this  should  be 
the  extreme  limit;  it  is  really  too  long. 

With  goose  eggs,  especial  care  is  needed  to  make  a 
comfortable  nest.  It  should  be  fashioned  deeper  than 
for  hens'  eggs,  as  the  eggs  are  often  about  three  inches 
in  diameter.  The  nest  should  be  deep  enough  so  that 
the  hen  may  rest,  in  part,  at  least,  on  the  rim  of  nesting 
material.  Three  eggs  is  an  uncomfortable  number  of 
goose  eggs,  as  they  do  not  lie  well  together ;  five  is  a 
good  number  on  which  the  hen  may  sit  in  fair  com- 
fort, and  which  she  can  cover  properly  in  a  well-made 
nest. 

Testing  is  such  a  simple,  desirable,  and  informing  act 
that  I  feel  that  no  one  should  omit  it.  Through  its  in- 
formation, one  may,  at  least  in  part,  count  the  chickens 


HATCHING  AND   BROODING  WITH  MOTHER  HEN      47 


before  they  are  hatched.  This  is  one  of  the  ways  in 
which  we  discount  the  knowledge  of  our  fathers. 
People  say  that  the  Egyptians  of  thousands  of  years 
ago  did  count  their  chickens  in  advance,  at  least  to  the 
extent  of  offering  from  the  public  hatcheries  three 
chickens  for  every  four  eggs  brought  them.  But  this 
was  banking  on  the  skill  of  the  breeders  and  of  the 
superintendents  of  the  hatching  process.  I  wonder  if 
the  "  clever  Yankee  "  has,  even  yet,  reached  the  point 
of  equaling  the  bare-legged  Egyptian  in  skill  and  clev- 
erness ! 

If  you  have  a  reflecting  lantern,  the  easiest  tester  is  a 
large  tube  or  cylinder  of  pasteboard,  set  on  end,  form- 
ing a  well  into  which  a 
lantern  is  dropped.  Or,  it 
may  be  set  over  a  lamp 
with  a  large  wick.  Just 
opposite  the  flame,  a  hole 
is  cut  in  the  pasteboard.  — 
I  have  used  heavy  build- 
ing paper.  —  Over  this  is 
gummed  a  bit  of  black  felt 
or  other  material  impervious 
to  light,  itself  having  a  cen- 
tral hole  scarcely  an  inch 
and  one  half  in  diameter. 

Working     in      a     darkened      The  Easiest  Simple  Egg  Tester.      Set 

the  Cylinder  over  the  Lamp 

room,  one  holds  the  egg  up 

to  the  hole ;  the  light,  shining  through  the  translucent 
egg,  showing  what  has  taken  place  inside  the  shell. 
With  a  white-shelled  egg,  one  may  test  at  the  end  of 
the  fifth  day,  and  plainly  see  the  lively,  spidery  body 


48  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

within  which  means  a  developing  chick.  This  small 
body  lies  on  one  side  (but  is  mobile  within  the  egg  to 
some  extent)  and  toward  the  large  end  of  the  egg. 
Around  it,  and  tending  to  lie  lengthwise  of  the  egg,  is  an 
indistinct  nebula,  a  bit  reddish  or  darkened  ;  but  much 
of  the  egg  is  at  this  time  still  clear.  The  infertile  egg, 
or  the  one  which  has  died  very  early,  may  show  only  a 
central,  floating  globe  a  bit  darker  than  the  body  of  the 

egg- 

As  the  chick  develops,  the  darker  portion  spreads 
and  intensifies,  day  by  day,  till,  when  the  hatch  is  about 
two  thirds  through,  the  shell  is  nearly  filled  with  the 
body  of  the  chick,  which  makes  it  opaque  except  for  the 
air  space. 

Your  part  of  the  brooding  is  very  simple.  It  will 
consist,  first,  in  seeing  that  the  mother's  feathers  are 
entirely  free  from  matting.  A  bit  of  soft  feed  or  of 
white  of  egg  may  have  caused  them  to  stick  together 
near  the  tips.  One  morning  you  may  go  out  to  find 
your  best  chick  hung  by  the  neck  in  this  natural  noose, 
if  you  have  not  made  sure  that  the  feathers  are  free. 
Then,  it  is  rather  safe,  even  if  you  have  powdered  the  hen 
carefully,  to  rub  one  or  two  drops  of  liquid  oil  like  sweet 
oil  or  hens'  oil  into  the  down  on  the  head  of  each  chick. 
If  there  is  any  reason  for  distinguishing  these  chicks, 
set  the  foot  of  each  one  squarely  on  a  soft  pine  board, 
and  punch  through  the  web  with  a  hollow,  hand  awl 
punch.  This  works  better  than  any  spring  punch  I 
have  seen.  The  chicks  do  not  need  any  feed  till  thirty- 
six  hours  old,  but  you  can  throw  in  a  bit  of  pulverized 
egg  shell,  or  some  chick  grit,  at  once,  if  you  like.  Feed 
the  hen  some  whole  corn,  water  her,  and  leave  her  to  care 


HATCHING  AND  BROODING  WITH  MOTHER  HEN   49 

for  them.  The  two  points  you  need  to  make  sure  of  are 
that  there  are  no  rats  or  other  vermin  to  carry  them  off, 
and  that  the  coop  is  placed,  if  early  in  the  season,  in  a 
spot  sheltered  from  wind  and  open  to  all  the  sunshine 
possible.  Later  in  the  season,  you  will  select  a  place 
shaded,  at  least  in  the  heat  of  the  day.  Dense  and 
complete  shade  is  at  all  times  to  be  avoided.  Air  and 
sunshine  in  moderation  are  the  fowls'  best  friends. 


Improvised  Water  Fount 

The  water  vessel  for  tiny  chicks  is  to  be  either  a 
patented  "  fountain  "  of  chick  size,  in  two  parts  for  care- 
ful cleaning,  —  which  may  be  had  in  glass,  —  or  an  im- 
provised fountain  consisting  of  a  tin  can  reversed  in  a 
saucer,  having  one  or  two  holes  near  what  is  now  the 
bottom,  which  works  on  the  same  principle  as  the  more 
expensive  sale  fountains ;  or,  you  may  use  a  very  shal- 
low dish  with  a  flattish  stone  in  the  center  to  keep  the 
chicks  out  of  the  water,  lest  the  down  get  wet  when 
they  run  through  it  and  jostle  each  other. 

The  matter  of  feeding  will  be  taken  up  in  another 
chapter,  and  that  of  the  best  kinds  of  coops  will  also 


50         THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

be  treated  in  another  connection.  When  the  chicks  are 
very  small,  I  like  to  inclose  the  coop  with  a  strip  of 
wire  netting,  making  a  tiny  yard  which  hinders  them 
from  straying  away,  and  keeps  out  most  marauders. 
Permanent  framed  netting  panels  are  neater,  and  al- 
ways ready. 


V 
BEGINNING   ARTIFICIAL    INCUBATION 

"  Follow  Copy  "  —  Good  Eggs  the  First  Requisite  —  Work 
that  is  above  Average  — "  Cold  Storage  "   Eggs  for 
Hatching  —  Exigencies   of    Trade  —  February    rather 
Early  —  "  Fertility  "  —  Eggs  at   $150    per    Sitting  - 
Temperature  Controls  Development  —  Advance  Care 

WHILE  I  believe  that  the  Beginner  may  learn  more 
about  that  which  he  is  really  studying,  the  fowls  them- 
selves, by  hatching  first  with  hens,  rather  than  with  the 
machine,  I  am  aware  that  a  fair  proportion  of  people 
will  prefer  to  begin  with  the  incubator.  Perhaps  the 
best  general  rule  I  can  give  them,  which  will  cover 
everything,  is,  "Follow  copy!"  In  other  words,  the 
most  common  mistake  made  is  in  trying  to  follow  the 
notions  of  many  writers  who  think  they  know  more 
about  incubation  than  the  manufacturers  of  the  machines 
can  know.  The  printed  instructions  .which  go  with  the 
machine  are  to  be  followed,  for  success.  That  circum- 
stances alter  cases  is  a  truism.  The  machine  which 
you  have  bought  may  require  different  handling  from 
those  which  A,  B,  C,  and  D  wrote  about,  and  only  the 
manufacturers  are  supposed  to  know  the  best  way  to 
handle  those  particular  machines. 

Absolutely  the  first  requisite  for  artificial  incubation 
is  good  eggs.  Is  this  not  true  of  all  incubation  ?  Cer- 
tainly ;  but  the  egg  has  a  harder  gauntlet  to  run  in  arti- 
ficial incubation  than  it  has  under  natural  incubation, 
and,  say  what  we  may  about  incubator  chicks  being  "just 


52  THE  BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 

as  good,"  the  fact  remains  that  white  diarrhoea  most 
commonly  attacks  broods  of  incubator  chicks.  More- 
over, the  spirit  of  the  age  has  no  use  for  the  "  just  as 
good  "  article  ;  it  wants  the  best  to  be  had.  When  any 
one  at  all  familiar  with  hatching  conditions  will  declare 
positively,  as  Mr.  Milo  Hastings  has  done,  "It  has  been 
thoroughly  demonstrated  that  with  good  parentage,  good 
incubation,  and  good  brooder  conditions,  white  diarrhoea 
is  unknown,"  it  becomes  entirely  a  question  of  the  man 
back  of  the  work,  if  we  admit  that  these  affirmations 
are  true.  Hastings  places  all  diseases  of  poultry  in 
three  divisions :  (a)  those  inborn  ;  (£)  those  induced  by 
unfavorable  conditions,  whether  of  food  or  of  environ- 
ment ;  (c)  those  which  are  due  to  noxious  bacteria.  The 
last  would  include  all  the  contagious  diseases,  those 
which  are  endemic,  etc. 

It,  has  been  said  that  excessive  cost  of  production  and 
excessive  losses  in  raising  the  stock  cover  much  of  the 
reason;  for  failure,  when  that  comes.  It  goes  without 
saying  that  no  man  sets  out,  in  any  business,  to  be  a 
failure ;  he  sets  out  to  be  the  exceptionally  successful  one. 
He  may  not  be  aware  of  this,  but  it  is  in  "the  back  of 
his  mind." 

If  you,  then,  who  read  these  lines,  expect  to  be  a 
success,  it  is  necessary  that  you  do  work  that  is  above 
average  in  giving  your  chicks  a  heritage  of  health  and 
vigor,  and  in  surrounding  them  with  favorable  conditions 
as  to  food,  sanitation,  etc.  "Just  as  good"  positively 
will  not  do !  I  think  the  greatest  difficulty  the  novice 
poultry  raiser  meets  is  in  finding  some  one  "reliable  "  on 
whom  to  rely.  Down  at  the  bottom,  however,  it  is  too 
often  the  worker  himself  who  is  not  sufficiently  reliable. 


BEGINNING  ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION 


53 


It  may  be  because  of  lack  of  time,  or  it  may  be  because 
of  lack  of  ability  to  handle  details.  In  the  case  of  most 
Beginners,  probably,  this  detail  poultry  work  is  added 
to  the  "day's  work"  so  that  the  worker  does  not  have 
a  fair  show.  This  means  that  he  cannot  give  the  poultry 
a  fair  show,  either.  ? 


The  Cornell  Gasoline  Brooder  House  at  New  Jersey  Station ;    One  in  Process 
of  Construction.     Saves  on  Cost  of  Production 

Early  in  March,  one  year,  a  suburban  Beginner  de- 
lightedly announced  to  me  that  she  had  an  incubator 
full  of  chicks  ready  to  hatch.  She  wanted  me  to  see 
them  when  they  came  off.  She  was  full  of  enthusiasm. 
The  actual  hatch  was  twenty-two  chicks,  as  I  learned 
later.  A  month  later  I  asked  about  her  chicks.  Her 
face  fell.  "  All  dead."  The  cause  was  white  diarrhoea ; 
a  related  fact,  that  she  was  using  a  second-hand  incubator, 
probably  carrying  the  germs  of  the  disease. 


54'  ;  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

The  machine,  the  egg,  and  the  handler  are  the  three 
great  factors  to  a  successful  machine  hatch.  Inasmuch 
as  the  handler  furnishes  both  the  eggs  and  the  machine, 
it  looks  as  though  he  were  the  most  important  of  all. 
The  greatest  temptation  a  modern  business  man  has,  it 
may  be,  is  to  press  the  button  before  he  is  ready.  So, 
the  Beginner  with  artificial  hatching  and  brooding. 

To  send  for  the  catalogues  of  six  or  eight  of  the  best 
machines,  to  study  them  carefully  with  reference  to  their 
weakest  points,  and  to  attend  some  show  where  they  are 
on  exhibition,  and  where  he  can  question  the  agent, 
should  be  possible  to  almost  any  Beginner. 

The  mistake  he  makes. most  frequently,  is  to  buy  be- 
fore he  has  digested  this  information  ;  to  buy,  perhaps, 
from  a  silver-tongued  agent  of  number  one  or  number 
two,  before  he  has  heard  the  silver  words  of  numbers 
three,  six,  and  as  many  more  as  he  can  capture ;  or,  as 
can  capture  him  ! 

A  book  like  this  can  scarcely  recommend  any  one 
machine.  I  will  say,  only,  that,  personally,  I  prefer  a 
well-made,  copper-tanked,  hot-water  machine ;  but  that 
the  hot-air  machine  is  at  present  more  popular.  Also, 
that  the  trend  is  more  and  more  toward  the  sand-tray 
machines,  as  events  seem  to  point  to  the  fact  that  non- 
moisture  has  been  the  cause  of  many  failures  in  the  past. 

The  manufacturers  of  the  older  machines  are,  in  the 
large,  more  conservative  in  statement  than  the  newest 
claimants  of  the  Beginner's  money.  Whether  a  Begin- 
ner is  wise  to  trust  himself  to  other  Beginners  in  such  a 
fundamental  matter,  let  the  good  sense  of  the  buyer 
decide  for  him. 

One  of  the   Bright  Ones  has  recently  said :    "  The 


BEGINNING   ARTIFICIAL   INCUBATION 


55 


Cold  Storage  Egg  is  all  right  —  as  long  as  it  is  LEFT 
THERE!"  But,  the  real  Mission  of  the  cold-storage 
egg  is  not  to  remain  in  storage.  It  was  put  there  with 
the  one  idea  :  to  await  its  coming  out ;  and  its  bringing- 
out  party  is  a  masquerade,  in  which  it  takes  the  part 
either  of  a  fresh  egg,  or  a  "  Just-as-Good-As." 


A  Part  of  Cornell's  White  Leghorn  Record.     Chicks  Artificially  Hatched  and 
Brooded,  and  Graded  as  "Weak  " 

If  I  should  have  the  temerity  to  ask  you,  "  What 
about  incubating  a  cold-storage  egg?"  you  would  not 
even  consider  the  subject.  You  would  only  laugh  scorn- 
fully at  the  folly  of  such  a  proposition.  Yet,  I  suspect 
that  there  are  very  few  fanciers  who  do  not  send  out 
eggs  for  hatching,  and  very  few  poultry  raisers  of  any 
kind  who  do  not  try  to  incubate  at  home,  eggs  which 
have  several  of  the  qualities  which  go  to  make  cold- 
storage  eggs  to  you,  tmthinkable,  as  possible  producers 
of  chicks. 


56  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

I  believe  that  the  real  reason  for  the  failure  of  thou- 
sands of  incubator  eggs  to  produce  vigorous  chicks,  and 
of  other  thousands  of  incubator  chicks  to  come  to  ma- 
turity, is  to  be  sought  in  the  quality  of  mind  of  the  man 
or  woman  who  handles  the  stock  and  eggs.  To  this 
may  be  added  the  exigencies  of  the  fancier's  trade. 
These  exigencies  usually  demand  that  birds  be  kept  in 
yards.  As  the  trade  begins  earlier  each  year,  it  comes 
about  that  a  goodly  proportion  of  the  eggs  for  hatching 
are  laid  at  a  season  when  eggs  are  produced  contrary  to 
nature,  by  fowls  in  unnatural  conditions,  supplied  with 
foods  that  are  not  natural  to  the  breeding  season. 

Some  time  ago  I  inspected  the  brooder  houses  at  one 
of  our  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations.  I  had 
thought  I  noticed  a  slight  hesitancy,  when  I  had  asked 
to  see  the  brooder  stock.  While  I  was  looking  them 
over,  the  poultryman  in  charge  told  me  confidentially 
that  he  kept  the  brooder  houses  locked,  and  showed  the 
chicks  as  little  as  possible,  because  he  was  ashamed  of 
them.  Yet  the  plant  itself  was  good,  the  man  clever 
and  systematic ;  and  he  told  me  that  he  hud  done  abso- 
lutely everything  he  knew  to  be  for  the  welfare  of  the 
chicks.  Still,  even  the  best  of  them  could  scarcely  be 
said  to  look  rugged,  and  a  large  proportion  were  actu- 
ally drooping,  or  sick ;  this  was  in  February. 

We  may  admit  that  February,  at  the  north,  is  still 
rather  early  for  hatching  and  brooding.  Stock  is  con- 
fined, and  supplies  of  eggs  are  not  wholly  regular,  so 
that  some  will  be  kept  in  storage  (if  not  "cold-storage  ") 
several  weeks,  it  may  be,  before  being  incubated.  And, 
even  if  the  eggs  were  all  right  when  gathered,  they  may 
be  far  from  all  right — for  anything  but  "  just-as-goods  " 


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58    '  THE  BEGINNER  IN   POULTRY 

and  baking  purposes — by  the  time  they  are  shipped 
to  the  customer,  or  insultingly  offered  to  a  self-respecting 
hen  at  home.  Then,  there  is  another  view  of  the  mat- 
ter which  I  think  is  often  overlooked  :  this  is,  that  a 
pretty  good  proportion  of  the  eggs  gathered  in  January 
and  February  will  have  been  chilled  before  they  were 
stored  at  all.  Much  is  said  about  the  low  fertility  of 
eggs,  from  January  to  March.  In  my  opinion,  this 
supposed  "infertility"  is  more  often  due  to  chilling  of 
the  eggs  than  to  any  other  cause.  Many  use  the  word 
"  fertility  "  very  loosely.  When  an  authority  states, 
gravely,  that  eggs  from  the  same  lot  showed  perhaps 
75  per  cent  of  fertility  in  the  machine  and  85  or  90 
per  cent  under  the  hen,  we  know  that  no  strict  mean- 
ing can  be  put  on  the  word  "  fertile  "  in  this  connection. 
But,  be  this  as  it  may,  there  are  other  causes  for  poor 
hatches  than  real  infertility.  Eggs  laid  in  these  three 
early  months  are  more  than  likely  to  be  held  longer 
than  at  any  other  period  of  the  year.  Thus,  age  and 
low  temperature,  both  of  which  have  affected  the  cold- 
storage  egg  at  which  you  may  jest  when  considered  as  to 
hatchability,  are  very  likely  to  be  conditions  also  of  the 
loudly  advertised  Eggs  for  Hatching  at  five  to  $fjo  — 
they  say! — per  sitting.  Even  though  you  could  be 
convinced  that  any  eggs  are  worth  that  amount  of 
money,  if  of  the  best,  the  pampered  hens  that  lay 
eggs  held  at  $150  a  sitting  cannot  be  made  exempt 
from  Nature's  laws.  If  subjected  to  exposure,  their 
eggs  chill,  even  as  the  five-cent  eggs  of  the  grocer 
type ;  and,  if  the  stock  be  kept  under  conditions  such 
that  the  eggs  cannot  chill  during  the  extreme  season, 
the  balance  of  Nature  pulls  down  in  another  direction, 


BEGINNING   ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION  59 

and  the  eggs  become  largely  unhatchable  through  lack 
of  stamina  in  the  breeding  stock.  • 

Professor  Horace  Atwood  recently  expressed,  in  a 
bulletin  from  the  West  Virginia  Station,  a  universal 
rule,  as  follows :  "  The  temperature  at  which  the  eggs 
are  kept  is  the  factor  which  CONTROLS  the  rate  of  de- 
velopment of  the  embryos."  He  was  applying  it  to  the 


Incubator  Cellar,  West  Virginia  Experiment  Station 

eggs  under  incubation,  and  went  on  to  say :  "  If  the 
temperature  at  which  eggs  are  kept  (in  the  machine)  is 
slightly  too  high,  the  eggs  will  hatch  before  the  twenty- 
first  day ;  while  temperature  which  is  slightly  too  low 
may  delay  the  hatch  till  the  twenty-second  or  the  twenty- 
third  day,  or  possibly  even  later."  We  who  have  prac- 
ticed artificial  incubation  did  not  need  that  Professor 
Atwood  should  tell  us  this.  We  know  it  since  long  ago. 


60  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

But,  we  often  ignore  the  related  fact  that  the  growth  of 
the  embryo  is  a  process  only  suspended,  between  the 
period  of  exclusion  and  that  of  being  put  to  incubate, 
and  it  is  a  process  suspended  because,  and  only  because 
of  the  temperature  in  which  it  is  held.  Subject  the  em- 
bryo, accustomed  to  a  temperature  of  104  to  107,  — 
which  is  the  temperature  of  the  hen's  blood, — immedi- 
ately upon  exclusion  to  a  temperature  of  32,  or  below, 
and  what  right  have  you  to  think  that  it  will  not  be 
injured,  or  die  outright?  Subject  it,  on  the  contrary, 
to  a  temperature  of  100  to  140  degrees  in  an  express 
car,  and  what  right  have  you  to  expect  that  it  will  do 
other  than  take  up  the  arrested  development  when  the 
temperature  is  favorable,  or  die  when  it  is  fatally  high  ? 

All  the  foregoing  is  simply  to  lead  up  convincingly 
to  this :  The  proper  care  and  handling  of  chicks  de- 
mands, IN  ADVANCE,  all  that  combination  of  favorable 
conditions  which  will  insure  the  production  of  a  perfect 
egg,  well-shelled :  but  it  demands  no  less  the  best  of 
care  for  that  egg  while  the  process  of  development 
is  suspended ;  and  also  that  this  process  shall  not  be 
suspended  too  long.  A  fertile  egg,  after  it  is  presented 
to  us,  is  a  living,  young  animal,  existing  in  what  may 
be  termed  an  abnormal  environment.  In  a  temperature 
of  40  to  50  degrees,  or  thereabouts  (50  preferred),  it 
will  remain  in  excellent  condition  (if  kept  dry)  for 
about  ten  days,  and  will  hatch,  up  to  that  time,  nearly 
as  well  as  what  we  term  "  strictly  fresh."  In  a  damp 
place,  however,  it  may  very  soon  be  attacked  by  some 
injurious  fungus  which  finds  its  way  through  the  shell. 

Despite  the  discouraging  ravages  of  white  diarrhoea, 
in  its  varied  forms,  the  season  of  1911  saw  an  access 


BEGINNING   ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION  6 1 

of  confidence  in  artificial  hatching,  among  many  who 
rank  as  leaders,  before  unknown.  I  attribute  it  chiefly 
to  the  poultry  world  having  passed  from  under  the 
domination  of  the  non-moisture  idea.  One  worker, 
who  said  he  would  scorn  to  get  less  than  70  per  cent  or 
80  per  cent  of  the  eggs  put  in,  in  good,  livable  chicks, 
attributed  his  own  success,  so  uniform,  to  the  use  of  a 
first-class  hygrometer. 

In  selecting  a  machine,  the  crucial  point  seems  to 
be  to  get  one  well  ventilated,  with  a  good  case  made 
of  seasoned  wood,  and  with  proper  packing  and  a  good 
thermostat  regulator.  The  trouble  does  not  usually,  in 
these  days,  lie  with  the  regulator.  I  once  bought  a 
one-hundred-egg  machine  for  ten  dollars.  It  had 
double  doors  (the  inner  one  of  glass),  the  best  lamp 
I  have  used,  the  best  outside  case  I  have  seen  on 
any  machine,  and  a  good  regulator.  In  all  these  it  was 
almost  faultless.  Yet  it  would  not  keep  up  heat  in  a 
room  below  60  degrees  and  it  had  an  egg  tray  that 
sagged  and  billowed  enough  to  make  a  dangerous  vari- 
ation in  temperatures.  The  brooder  that  went  with  it 
was  worthless,  even  as  a  "  fireless."  I  could  never  see 
why,  with  so  much  that  was  above  the  average,  two 
slouchy  points  should  have  been  permitted  to  spoil  the 
machine. 

Once  the  eager  Beginner  has  become  possessed  of 
a  machine  of  good,  all-around  type,  and  enough  un- 
chilled,  well-graded,  well-shelled,  fertile,  uniform  eggs, 
we  may  bid  him  good  speed  toward  the  goal,  reiterating 
once  more  the  warning :  "  Follow  the  directions  of 
the  man  who  has  used  the  machine  the  most  times, 
under  every  imaginable  condition  ;  namely,  the  maker." 


62 


THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


Concerning  the  comparative  quality  of  the  eggs  from 
hens  and  pullets,  as  sources  of  vigorous  chicks,  the  re- 
sults of  eight  experiments  at  the  West  Virginia  Station 
tabulate  as  follows : 


OLD  HENS 

PULLETS 

Total   number  of   eggs   incubated    less 

those  cracked  in  turning  

1094 

87I 

Average  weight  of  eggs  per  hundred  . 

12.96  lb. 

11.19  lh- 

Total  number  of  chicks 

840 

CQI 

-5V1 

Per  cent  hatched  of  eggs  incubated    . 

76.7 

67.8 

Average  weight  of  chicks   per  hundred 

when  removed  from  incubator    . 

8.28  lb. 

7.12  lb. 

Average    weight    of    chicks    at   second 

weighing,  per  hundred       

29.56  lb. 

23.07  lb. 

Total  number  of  recorded  deaths  .     .     . 

42 

85 

Per  cent  of  chicks  which  died  .  •  .     .     . 

5 

14.5 

In  every  item  the  hens  have  a  decided  advantage. 


VI 


HANDLING   AND    FEEDING   THE   YOUNG 
FROM    MACHINES 

Brooding  Equipment — Vital  Points  in  Brooding — The 
Best  Brooder  —  Disinfected  Common  Sense  —  From 
Incubator  to  Brooder  —  A  Fair  Chance  for  Life  —  Sav- 
ing Chicks,  Saving  Work,  Saving  Money  —  Keep  the 
Chicks  Outside  —  A  Warm  Back  — A  Fireless  Brooder 
—  Shipping  Baby  Chicks  —  Good  Feeds 

SPECIFICALLY,  this  chapter  deals  with  handling  chicks, 
although  much  that  is  general  will  apply  also  to  all 
young  domestic  birds.  For  years,  it  has  been  an 
opinion  very  generally  expressed  among  poultry  writers 
that  good  brooding  was  a  much  more  difficult  matter 
than  good  incubating.  One  of  the  keenest  men  I  know 
of,  closely  and  largely  connected  with  poultry  work, 
says  he  knows  of  no  phase  of  poultry  keeping  that 
requires  more  thought  than  the  proper  selection  of 
brooding  equipment  for  the  young.  This  equipment 
is  always  high-priced  in  the  best  grades.  But,  because 
the  builders  of  brooders  are  more  likely  to  know  the 
principles  underlying  the  matter  than  are  those  who 
have  bestowed  less  thought  on  it,  it  is  vital  to  the 
Beginner  to  secure  the  best  brooder  to  be  had,  unless 
he  should  decide  to  use  a  "  fireless."  The  one  reason 
why  he  can  do  this  is  that  the  "  fireless"  does  not  have 
to  deal  at  all  with  the  principles  of  artificial  heating 
and  of  ventilating  such  heated  space.  Beyond  this, 
the  question  of  using  the  fireless  brooders  is  simply 

63 


64         THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

a  matter  of  substituting  close  personal  care  for  the 
automatic  work  of  the  higher  priced  heated  brooders. 
One  who  handles  a  fireless  brooder  must  expect  to  give 
time  instead  of  money  in  order  to  have  his  chicks 
"properly  brooded." 

"When  does  one  cease  to  be  a  Beginner  ?  "  inquires 
one  whom  poultry  people  generally  call  an  expert. 
"  For  myself,"  he  says,  "  I  can  say  that  I  am  still  very 
much  in  the  Beginners'  class."  Had  he  said,  "the 
learners'  class,"  we  could  all  agree  ;  for  he  who  ceases 
to  learn  has  ceased  to  be  a  reliable  worker,  or  a  reliable 
teacher. 

The  best  article  I  ever  saw  on  brooding  chicks  dis- 
cussed "  four  vital  points  in  brooding."  These  four 
points  were  exercise,  feed,  space,  and  uniformity  in 
age  and  size  of  chicks  brooded  together,  in  the  order 
here  given.  You  may  notice  that  all  these  are  points 
depending  on  the  operator ;  hence  it  must  be  taken  for 
granted  that  they  are  based  on  the  use  of  the  best 
brooder  attainable. 

Two  of  the  stock  questions  which  editors  receive  but 
never  answer,  are,  "  Which  is  the  best  incubator  ? "  ; 
"  Which  is  the  best  brooder  ?  "  I  shall  not  try  to  give 
the  name  of  the  best  brooder,  but  that  brooder  is  the 
best  which  affords  the  least  chance  for  the  Beginner  to 
go  wrong.  This  means,  one  in  which  the  heat  cannot 
go  fatally  high  or.  drop  to  a  fatally  low  point ;  one  in 
which  the  chicks  are  free  to  select  for  themselves  from 
several  temperatures,  at  any  given  time.  It  must  be 
one  which  has  good  circulation  of  fresh  air,  and  no  cor- 
ners where  chicks  may  tend  to  crowd  and  smother. 
Because  the  round  hover  meets  most  of  this  demand, 


HANDLING  AND  FEEDING  YOUNG  FROM  MACHINES      65 

it  is  the  favorite  type.  To  my  mind,  a  hover  should  al- 
ways permit  ventilation  above  the  chicks ;  hence,  I 
would  have  it  made  of  a  porous  material,  instead  of 
wood.  A  thickness  of  felt,  or  two  of  burlap,  could  be 
used,  fastened  upon  a  wooden  rim.  I  would  not  use  a 
hover  at  all,  were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  the  chicks  may 
huddle  in  a  corner  of  the  brooder,  if  there  be  no  hover. 
The  first  point  in  handling  the  chicks  is  to  leave  them 
in  the  hatching  machine  till  they  are  strong.  More 
chicks  are  lost  for  lack  of  this  precaution  than  from 
any  other  one  cause,  in  my  belief.  Nearly  every  incu- 
bator operator  is  in  such  a  hustle  to  lose  no  time  get- 
ting his  machine  "  set "  again,  that  he  hurries  the  chicks 
out  of  it  before  they  can  all  stand,  and  before  they 
have  sense  enough  to  do  anything  but  huddle  toward 
warmth.  On  the  way,  he  exposes  them  to  cold,  and 
possibly  does  not  get  the  brooder  just  running  right, 
and  soon  he  has  a  beautiful  bunch  of  crowding, 
soiled,  hollow-eyed  chicks,  and  two  weeks  later,  he  wont 
have  any,  and  will  be  so  discouraged  that  he  will  be 
glad  of  it !  He  will  suspect  the  feed,  the  eggs,  the 
brooder,  anything  except  the  real  cause,  and  will  pos- 
sibly write  to  some  Station  which  will  tell  him  he  should 
have  disinfected  his  eggs  and  his  incubator.  Too  many 
people  need  to  disinfect  their  common  sense,  so  that  it 
may  grow  strong  and  robust  enough  to  inform  them 
that  a  chick  just  out  of  the  close,  warm  egg  is  in  no 
state  to  grapple  with  the  universe  the  first  day !  His 
mother's  feathers,  or  the  close,  warm  spaces  of  the  in- 
cubator are  a  big  enough  world  for  him  to  learn  to  use 
at  first.  When  he  can  safely  take  more  air,  open  the 
machine  ventilators  wide ;  then,  when  he  has  had  a  few 


66  THE  BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 

hours  of  this,  open  the  door  a  crack,  but  keep  your  heat 
well  up  ;  after  a  few  hours,  make  the  crack  wider,  still 
keeping  the  heat  at  not  less  than  95  down  where  the 
chicks  are.  Most  machines  will  show  about  five  degrees 
difference  between  the  bottom  and  the  trays,  when  the 
door  is  closed.  At  all  events,  keep  heat  enough  so  that 
the  chicks  will  spread  about  happily,  and  always  follow 
this  rule  as  long  as  you  handle  them.  When  they  be- 
gin to  pant  for  air,  that  robust  common  sense  of  yours 
will  tell  you  that  they  need  less  heat  and  more  air.  Do 
not  neglect  its  counsel,  no  matter  what  the  thermometer, 
the  Experiment  Stations,  and  all  the  poultry  papers  and 
books  combined  tell  you !  The  chick  is  the  only  one 
that  knows,  and  he  is  telling  you  the  facts  you  can  bank  on. 

When  the  chicks  are  hardened  a  bit,  as  above,  and 
can  all  stand,  remove  them,  under  cover,  to  the  brooder, 
which  you  have  started  24  hours  before,  and  which  reg- 
isters 95  before  the  chicks  are  placed  in  it.  If  some 
are  still  weak,  remove  the  strong,  but  leave  the  weak  in 
the  incubator  till  they  are  ready.  One  grower  of  chicks 
estimates  that  sorting  the  chicks  so  that  none  of  any 
special  lot  are  stronger  than  the  rest  will  make  a  differ- 
ence of  from  I  o  to  20  per  cent  in  numbers  raised.  This 
is  a  low  estimate.  Let  the  variation  be  great  and  the 
room  limited,  or  any  other  condition  not  wholly  favor- 
able, and  50  per  cent  may  not  cover  this  loss.  "  Noth- 
ing is  more  bewildering  and  exhausting  to  the  little 
chick  than  struggling  constantly  for  life  in  the  midst  of 
an  immense  crowd  of  his  own  kind,"  says  the  writer 
noted.  He  puts  it  strongly ;  as  the  conditions  demand. 

Will  you  give  this  bit  of  downy  life  a  fair  chance  for 
his  life  by  furnishing  him  with  air,  warmth,  room,  so 


PQ 


68  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

that  he  may  have  an  even  start  ?  Not  till  this  is  done, 
may  you  go  on  to  that  which  comes  next.  The  "  next  " 
will  consist  of  food,  in  variety,  water,  and  a  chance  to 
exercise ;  simple  enough  to  provide,  surely.  If  you 
want  to  save  work,  you  can  get  chick  scratch  feeds  and 
patent  cracker  feeds  of  the  supply  houses  ;  if  you  pre- 
fer to  save  money,  you  can  hustle  around  till  you  find 
stale  bread  —  not  moldy  —  at  a  bakery  or  restaurant 
possibly,  then  you  can  buy  a  little  bran  and  middlings, 
corn  meal  if  you  wish,  pin-head  oats  (steel  cut,  some 
call  it)  and  cracked  corn,  and,  if  you  provide  clean, 
short  litter  for  him  to  scratch  in,  the  chick  will  grow 
thankfully.  In  cold  weather,  use  effort  to  make  sure 
he  cannot  get  too  cold  ;  in  hot  weather,  make  sure  he 
cannot  get  too  warm.  A  brooder  house  open  to  the 
south  and  having  much  glass  is  a  trap  to  the  Beginner. 
Even  an  open  shed,  permitting  the  sun  to  shine  fiercely 
on  a  brooder  with  glass  in  the  top,  may  bring  ruin  on 
the  entire  brood,  when  the  weather  passes  suddenly 
from  cold  to  hot  at  mid-spring.  A  Beginner  is  almost 
sure  to  turn  out  his  lamps,  when  he  finds  the  brooders 
getting  much  too  warm.  This  will  prove  fatal  when 
night  comes  on  too  cool,  and  the  brooder  has  to  be 
heated  slowly  while  the  chicks  shiver.  Better  open  it 
up  wide,  turn  the  lamp  low,  but  keep  the  brooder  itself 
warm,  so  that  it  needs  only  closing  to  be  soon  ready  to 
warm  the  chicks,  when  they  need  it. 

The  real  point  is  to  have  the  chicks  in  the  brooder 
just  as  little  as  possible.  For  a  day,  perhaps,  confine 
them  to  the  inner  room  ;  for  one  or  two  more,  according 
to  season,  confine  them  to  the  outer,  cooler  room,  en- 
couraging them  to  exercise,  by  giving  fine  grains  in  an 


HANDLING  AND  FEEDING  YOUNG  FROM  MACHINES      69 

inch  of  chaff  or  clover.  Then,  as  soon  as  you  dare,  get 
them  on  the  ground,  but  see  that  they  are  sheltered  from 
cold  wind.  In  summer,  always  provide  some  shelter 
from  the  sun,  no  matter  what  the  age  of  the  chicks.  A 
fiercely  hot  day  may  take  off  some  of  your  four-months- 
old  specimens,  if  they  have  no  shade.  A  rule  to  cover 
all  conditions  might  be  "  Reverse  the  conditions,  for 
hot  and  cold  weather."  In  cold  weather,  make  sure 
that  the  heat  cannot  get  too  low  ;  in  hot  weather,  watch 
the  other  extreme,  and  make  sure  that  it  cannot  get  too 
high.  I  never  like  to  close  the  sliding  glass  window  of 
the  brooder  entirely,  unless  it  is  where  strong  wind 
affects  it.  And  I  don't  like  the  top  windows  of  glass. 
They  are  seldom  safe.  We  must  have  light  in  the 
brooders  ;  but  it  should  come  from  side  windows ;  else, 
we  would  better  raise  the  cover  more  or  less,  and  use  a 
screen  to  keep  the  chicks  within,  when  necessary.  Top 
glass  radiates  away  too  much  warmth  when  it  is  cool, 
and  bakes  the  chicks  during  hot  sunshine. 

Any  one  may  read,  in  these  days,  about  "  Old  Trusty  " 
Johnson,  an  incubator  manufacturer.  His  one  principle 
of  brooding,  judging  by  the  way  he  harps  upon  it,  is 
that  about  all  a  chick  needs  to  bring  him  up  successfully 
is  to  have  his  back  kept  warm !  Mr.  Johnson  never 
gave  any  explanation  of  the  reasons  —  so  far  as  I  know. 
But  Professor  Atwood,  of  the  West  Virginia  Experiment 
Station,  referring  to  the  fact  that  a  chick,  when  cold,  runs 
to  the  hen  and  shoves  its  back  against  her  warm  body, 
adds :  "  There  is  a  good  and  sufficient  reason  why  the  chick 
warms  itself  this  way,  rather  than. by  jumping  on  the 
hen's  back  and  sticking  its  feet  down  among  the  feathers. 
The  reason  is  this  :  A  chick's  lungs  are  very  poorly 


70  THE  BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 

protected,  anatomically.  Surrounding  the  spinal  column 
and  projecting  in  between  the  ribs,  the  lungs  of  a  small 
chick  are  covered  only  by  a  bone  so  thin  as  to  be  partially 
transparent,  and  by  the  skin  with  its  accompanying 
down.  When  a  chick  becomes  cold,  its  lungs  are  apt  to 
be  the  first  organs  affected,  and,  unless  they  are  soon 
warmed,  a  cold  may  be  contracted  and  the  lungs  may 
become  inflamed  or  congested.  In  many  cases,  the 
congestion  may  become  so  acute  that  the  tissue  is  broken 
down,  with  the  formation  of  small  nodules  of  a  cheesy 
consistency.  Thousands  of  brooder  chicks  die  annually 
from  this  cause."  His  conclusion  is  that  top  heat,  with 
little  or  no  bottom  heat,  contact  top  heat,  if  possible  (or, 
as  next  best,  radiated  heat  from  above),  is  a  necessity  to 
the  best  brooder  system.  The  Prairie  State  Universal 
hover  and  the  Cornell  Gasoline  brooder  are  named  by 
Professor  Atwood  as  the  ones  he  has  used  which  best 
meet  these  requirements. 

The  fireless  brooder  can  be  used  by  any  one,  probably 
with  greater  safety  than  any  other  brooding  device, 
provided  it  is  used  in  a  room  of  moderate  temperature 
at  night,  and  in  sheltered,  sunny  positions  during  the 
day,  if  in  very  early  spring.  Any  kind  of  a  grocery 
box  may  be  the  foundation.  The  larger  the  floor  space, 
the  better ;  but  if  this  space  is  large,  it  is  better  to  par- 
tition off  a  room  at  one  end  for  the  sleeping  apartment ; 
while  the  chicks  are  still  very  small.  After  two  weeks, 
or  as  soon  as  the  chicks  begin  to  prefer  coolness  to  heat, 
the  partition  may  be  removed.  The  best  cover  I  know 
consists  of  two  sheets  of  soft  cheesecloth,  cut  some 
inches  larger  than  the  top  of  the  sleeping  room.  At  its 
best,  it  may  be  padded  with  feathers ;  or,  with  cotton, 


HANDLING  AND  FEEDING  YOUNG  FROM  MACHINES       71 

an  inch  or  two  thick.  If  padded  not  quite  to  the  edges 
of  the  sleeping  box,  it  may  be  dropped  to  any  position 
above  the  chicks,  —  of  course  very  close  while  they  are 
tender.  Thus,  it  allows  a  bit  of  ventilation  along  its 
edges.  On  an  extra  cold  night,  another  cushion  may 
be  used.  If  this  is  a  bit  larger  than  the  first,  it  may  be 


The  Cornell  Gasoline  Brooder  as  used  among  West  Virginia  Daisies 

adjusted  to  cut  off  as  much  ventilation  as  is  safe.  The 
one  rule  as  to  this  is  that  the  chicks  can  stand  rather 
close  air  when  but  a  few  days  old,  but  become  more 
subject  to  smothering  as  they  grow  older  and  the  weather 
becomes  warmer. 

As  to  brooder  space,  remember  that  the  manufacturer's 
space  estimate  fits  the  baby  chick.  As  it  grows,  one  of 
two  things  must  happen:  to  provide  sufficient  room, 
the  space  must  be  enlarged,  or  some  chicks  must  die. 
It  is  for  you  to  choose;  but  not  for  you  to  whine  later 


72  THE   BEGINNER   IN   POULTRY 

if  you  have  chosen  to  believe  that  they  "  will  get  along 
all  right "  when  crowded.  They  will  not!  Don't  bank 
on  it. 

Many  people  wonder  how  it  is  that  infant  chicks  can 
be  shipped  halfway  across  the  country  and  arrive  in 
good  condition.  It  is  because  they  are  supplied  by  Nature 
with  nutriment  for  a  short  period.  It  may  even  be  bet- 
ter for  them  to  be  thus  out  of  the  way  of  a  too  kind 
feeder  for  the  first  two  or  three  days.  If  chicks  are 
kept  quiet  and  warm,  with  not  too  much  light,  —  in 
other  words,  if  they  are  not  stimulated  by  the  conditions 
provided,  —  they  will  not  be  anxious  to  eat  until  they 
really  need  food.  If  stimulated,  they  will  be  likely  to 
eat  too  soon,  and  will  thus  upset  the  v/ork  of  the  diges- 
tive apparatus  at  the  beginning. 

When  they  begin  to  manifest  active  interest  in  things 
about  them,  it  is  usually  time  to  offer  feed,  in  small 
quantity  at  the  first.  I  notice  Dr.  N.  W.  Sanborn  says, 
"  My  chicks  remain  on  the  tray  of  the  machine  until 
thoroughly  dry ;  then  the  tray  is  removed,  and  the 
chicks  stay  on  the  floor  of  the  incubator  for  a  day  and  a 
half."  His  brooder,  warmed  to  100  degrees,  with  the 
floor  covered  with  litter,  then  receives  them  and  offers 
them  an  invitation  to  scratch  a  little.  A  board  confines 
them  within  four  inches  of  the  hover,  so  that  they  can- 
not become  chilled  by  losing  their  bearings.  Water  is 
before  them,  but  they  get  no  food  other  than  the  weed 
seeds  and  clover  leaves  and  grit  found  in  the  litter,  until 
four  days  old.  He  says  :  "  The  yolk  that  was  absorbed 
just  before  hatching  supplies  plenty  of  good  food  until 
tJic  foitrth  day,  when  I  begin  to  give  cracked  wheat. 
When  the  chicks  are  seven  days  old,  a  small  hopper  of 


HANDLING  AND  FEEDING  YOUNG  FROM  MACHINES       73 

high-grade  beef  scrap  is  put  before  them."  Dr.  San- 
born's  chicks  are  never  again  without  this  beef  scrap  till 
they  go  into  the  laying  house.  He  feeds  nothing  but 
cracked  wheat  and  beef  scrap  till  the  fourteenth  day, 
when  half  the  wheat  is  replaced  by  cracked  corn.  He 
always  gives  a  full  feed  of  cracked  grain  just  before 
dark,  and  does  not  limit  the  cut  grass  or  clover,  lettuce, 
turnip  tops,  or  whatever  may  be  available  as  green  feed, 
after  the  fourteenth  day.  He  says,  also,  that  it  reduces 
the  cost  of  raising  the  chicks  to  feed  a  dry  mash  of 
"  ground  grain  and  meat,"  and  that  it  raises  nice  chicks, 
though  not  leading  to  so  much  exercise  as  the  cracked 
grain  in  litter.  After  three  weeks,  the  grain  and  meat 
are  fed  in  separate  hoppers. 

The  hoppers,  the  water  dish,  and  the  litter  may  be 
outside  the  brooder  as  soon  as  the  chicks  are  strong 
enough,  if  the  conditions  are  favorable.  If  the  chicks 
are  kept  inside,  the  ventilation  is  watched  very  carefully, 
the  heat  being  kept  a  little  in  excess,  in  order  to  keep 
the  windows  open  more.  He  says,  "  A  brooder  that 
can  be  shut  up  tightly  is  a  dangerous  one- to  put  into  the 
hands  of  a  beginner."  (With  this  I  agree  heartily.)  He 
adds  that  the  very  best  feeds  will  be  wasted  if  chicks 
are  allowed  to  get  chilled  or  wet.  He  speaks  of  "  the 
chill  which  is  the  usual  cause  of  white  diarrhoea,"  and 
says  :  "  When  I  visit  my  brooders,  if  I  find  the  chicks 
lying  with  heads  just  in  sight,  outside  the  felt  (fringe)  of 
the  hover,  I  know  the  heat  is  all  right.  I  much  prefer 
this  test  to  the  best  thermometer  I  can  buy."  Most  of 
those  of  experience  will  agree  with  him  in  this.  But 
a  thermometer  is  a  good  help  in  knowing  the  temperature 
when  the  chicks  are  not  under  the  hover. 


74  •  THE   BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 

It  is  rather  common  to  argue  that  brooder  chicks  are 
far  better  because  they  have  no  lice.  Watch  out,  all  the 
same ! 

Feeding  hen-hatched  chicks  does  not  differ  essentially 
from  feeding  machine  chicks  ;  the  real  measure  of  quan- 
tity is  the  amount  of  exercise  the  chick  is  getting.  If 
plenty,  it  can  stand  heavy  feeding ;  if  little,  the  feeder 
must  be  careful.  It  is  rather  difficult  to  feed  a  hen  and 
chicks  together,  as  one  cannot  tell  how  much  feed  the 
chicks  are  getting.  Whole  corn  for  the  hen  and  soft 
feed  or  granulated  feed  outside  where  the  hen  cannot 
touch  it,  is  the  way  out.  And  hen-hatched  chicks,  like 
others,  need  feed,  always  available,  after  they  once  get 
safely  on  their  feet. 


VII 
STUDYING  FEEDING   VALUES 

Losses  from  Feeding  Errors  —  Adapting  Feeds  —  Good 
Feeds  the  Basis  of  Hen  Health  —  Chief  Sources  of 
Protein  —  The  Common  Grains  —  Tables  of  Food  Val- 
ues —  Grouping  Feeds  for  Economic  and  Rapid  Food 
Combinations  for  Daily  Use 

THE  matter  of  right  feeding  presents  itself  with  the 
first  bunch  of  chicks  or  the  first  lot  of  fowls  acquired. 
It  has  such  an  important  bearing  on  the  whole  question 
of  success  or  failure  that  it  must  needs  be  studied  with 
earnest  care  by  all  who  would  handle  s,tock  of  any  kind. 
In  the  case  of  poultry,  a  single  loss  among  common 
stock  counts  for  nothing  as  compared  with  a  loss  among 
the  larger  animals,  the  latter  often  being  a  tragedy  to 
the  poor  man.  But,  inasmuch  as  there  are  large  num- 
bers of  individuals  in  all  important  flocks,  and  necessarily 
housed  in  groups,  it  must  follow  that  a  feeding  error  (or 
any  error)  will  affect  the  matter  of  productiveness  at  a 
multitude  of  points,  and  may  determine  by  itself  alone 
whether  or  not  there  shall  be  any  profit  whatever. 

I  am  not  of  those  who  would  make  a  change  in  the 
feed  every  time  the  flock  fails  to  begin  laying  at  the  exact 
period  when  eggs  are  expected.  The  frequent  expres- 
sion, "  Those  hens  ought  to  be  laying,"  may  mean,  in 
essence,  only  that  their  owner  ought  to  know  more 
about  his  work,  or  have  more  conscience  toward  it.  I 
would  rather  make  a  careful  study  of  the  feeding  habits 
of  the  fowls  and  of  the  prominent  classes  of  feeds,  and 

75 


76         THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

get  from  this  a  plain,  everyday  "rule  to  go  by"  that 
will  serve  practically  as  a  general  basis  for  all  feeding. 
Having  such  a  foundation,  one  will  then  be  fitted  to 
bring  common  sense  tp  bear  in  any  individual  case  of 
failure  of  the  birds  to  meet  expectations. 


Good  Standard  Poultry  Feeds.  Beginning  at  Left,  Front  Row :  Middlings, 
Cracked  Corn,  Oats,  Beet  Pulp.  Middle  Row :  Bran,  Cut  Clover,  Gran- 
ulated Charcoal,  Linseed  Meal.  Back  Row :  Pigeon  Feed,  with  Many 
Peas,  Corn  and  Oats  Mixed,  Commercial  Mash,  Commercial  Scratch  Feed 

It  is  fortunate,  indeed,  for  the  feeder  on  a  farm  that 
the  family  within  the  home  and  the  group  families  in  the 
farmyard  subsist  substantially  on  the  same,  or  related, 
foods.  They  are  not  served  in  the  same  ways ;  yet  the 
very  fact  that  the  fowls  which  are  most  widely  noted  for 
giving  a  liberal  income  are  those  that  subsist  largely  on 
table  scraps  goes  to  prove  clearly  that  the  proper  ration 
for  our  fowls  is  one  not  greatly  differing  from  those 
which  we  provide  for  ourselves. 

Inasmuch  as  the  chief  natural  foods  for  fowls  are 
grains,  grasses,  and  other  vegetable  products,  the  ques- 
tion at  once  arises :  What  is  it,  in  table  scraps,  which 


78  THE   BEGINNER   IN   POULTRY 

makes  them  a  better  egg  producer,  on  the  average, 
than  the  same  quantity  of  grains  and  grasses  an  naturel  ? 
Three  points  which  may  be  mentioned  are :  (a)  variety, 
(£)  cooking,  (c)  the  addition  of  meat.  The  breads,  cakes, 
crackers,  dumplings,  macaronis,  etc.,  are  naught  but 
cooked  grains  chiefly,  but  higher  in  feeding  value  than 
pure  grains,  because  fiber,  etc.,  have  been  taken  out ; 
the  cheeses,  custards,  starch  puddings,  etc.,  are  chiefly 
eggs  and. milk,  both  animal  foods;  and  the  meat  forms 
a  supply  of  animal  food  more  sure  than  that  which  may 
come  from  insects  in  summer.  In  winter,  insects, 
worms,  etc.,  are  unattainable,  in  many  localities,  even 
by  fowls  supposably  "on  range."  Unless  the  ground 
is  bare  and  the  herbage  somewhat  green,  "  on  range  " 
in  winter  can  mean  little  more  than  at  liberty  to  go  and 
come. 

We  may  see  at  a  glance  that  here  is  nothing  that  can- 
not be  obtained  through  the  right  handling  of  the  com- 
mon, regulation  poultry  feeds.  But,  another  point 
presents  itself  :  it  takes  more  planning  to  secure  variety, 
and  it  takes  more  work,  to  provide  cooked  food  for  the 
birds,  especially  when  flocks  are  large.  (Caldron 
kettles  are  part  of  the  regular  equipment  of  many  large 
establishments.)  And,  there  is  another  consideration : 
feeds  are  of  varying  degrees  of  concentration  and  of 
palatability,  and  upon  a  clear  understanding  of  the 
proper  proportion  of  course  fibrous  feeds  to  those  which 
are  rich  and  smooth  and  concentrated,  rests  the  value  of 
any  given  feed  mixture.  Upon  its  palatability  rests  the 
amount  eaten.  If  a  feed  is  not%  good,  from  the  hen  or 
the  chick  point  of  view,  it  may  mean  poor  chicks  and 
non-laying  hens,  even  though  it  may  contain  the  proper 


STUDYING  FEEDING  VALUES  79 

elements  for  growth  and  productiveness.  This  is  one  of 
the  reasons  why  beans  cannot  be  fed  in  large  proportion : 
fowls  do  not  like  them,  and,  when  fed,  they  must  be 
partially  disguised  by  combining  them  with  something 
well  liked. 

It  is  to  be  understood  that  feeds  for  herbivorous 
animals  must  always  consist  almost  wholly  of  herbage, 
and  that  the  animal  eating  mixed  vegetable  and  animal 
rations  in  a  state  of  nature  must  always  be  kept  severely 
on  the  safe  side ;  as  a  surplus  of  rich,  animal  food  is 
almost  sure  to  result  in  slow  poisoning,  undermining,  and 
finally  ruining  the  bird's  health.  This  is  a  cardinal 
error,  since  on  keeping  an  animal  in  health  depends,  in 
the  final  test,  the  per  cent  of  profit. 

Men,  in  general,  are  sick,  it  is  said,  because  they  do 
not  eat  properly ;  or  because  they  are  dissipated ;  or  be- 
cause they  lack  self-control  in  some  one  or  more  of  many 
ways.  If  we  cannot  feed  ourselves  so  as  to  keep  in 
health,  what  chance  is  there  that  we  can  do  better  with 
the  animals  in  our  charge  ?  These  animals  are  not 
under  their  own  control.  They  should  be  free  from  all 
damage  caused  by  lack  of  self-control,  because  they  and 
their  feed  are  under  our  control.  But  that  fact  may 
only  make  things  worse ;  it  depends  on  us.  Yet,  as 
soon  as  we  begin  to  handle  them  for  expected  profit, 
the  profit  question  takes  hold  of  the  handling  and  we 
tend  no  longer  to  feed  them  for  the  best  health,  but  for 
the  best  immediate  production,  which  we  presume  to  be 
for  the  best  profit. 

This  presumption  is,  to  a  degree,  false,  because 
founded  on  a  wrong  premise.  The  premise  is  that  the 
feed  which  brings  the  most  winter  eggs  —  for  instance 


8o  THE   BEGINNER  IN   POULTRY 

—  will  bring  also  the  most  profit.  This  by  no  means  al- 
ways follows.  We  have  to  consider  not  only  whether 
or  not  this  feed  can  carry  the  fowls  forward  in  the  most 
rugged  health,  but  also  whether  or  not  it  is  the  feed 
which  will  produce  a  given  number  of  eggs  at  the  least 
cost.  All  feeds  are  made  up  largely  of  muscle-makers, 
energy-makers,  and  pure  fats,  in  varying  proportions. 
It  is  also  true  of  nearly  all  foods  that  it  is  the  muscle- 
making  portion,  passing  by  the  name  of  proteids,  or 
protein  (sometimes  called  nitrogenous  feeds),  that  costs 
most  money,  weight  for  weight.  The  amount  of  protein 
in  a  feed  needs  to  be  considered,  always,  in  rating  it  as 
high  or  low  in  price,  in  connection  with  the  actual 
money  to  be  paid  for  it.  That  feed  at  two  dollars  a 
hundred  which  contains  20  per  cent  of  protein  is  a 
much  cheaper  food  than  another  at  the  same  price  which 
contains  only  10  per  cent.  We  may  often  see  this  illus- 
trated in  the  prices  of  brans  and  buckwheat  middlings. 
I  suppose  we  might  be  astounded,  were  we  to  study 
into  the  matter,  to  find  how  much  of  our  table  and 
household  supplies  are  made  from  the  wastes  of  other 
manufactures !  Certainly,  this  is  even  more  true  of  our 
stock  feeds.  Most  of  them  are  by-products.  Yet,  it  is 
often  said  that  we  use  the  poorer  portions  of  the  grains 
on  our  own  tables  and  give  the  best  to  the  domestic 
animals.  The  wheat  middlings  which  we  relegate  to 
the  farmyard  stock  is  15.6  protein  (an  average  of  32 
samples),  while  spring  wheat  patent  roller  process 
"  family  and  straight  grade "  flour  averages  less  than 
1 1  per  cent ;  not  to  mention  that  we  have  taken  out, 
also,  much  of  the  salts  so  essential  to  perfect  health. 
In  feeding  fowls  and  chicks,  any  small  plot  of  ground 


STUDYING   FEEDING   VALUES 


8l 


may  be  made  to  furnish  vegetable  growth,  and  many 
weeds  are  almost  as  good  as  more  aristocratic  plants. 
The  grains  and  meat  will  furnish  an  abundance  of  actual 
fat  and  fat  makers.  But  we  need  more  protein,  and  it  is 
the  wastes  from  other  manufactures  which  largely  sup- 
ply the  proteids  wherewith  we  enrich  and  balance  the 
coarse  "roughage,"  in  making  a  combination  feed  for 
any  kind  of  stock. 

Just  here  we  must  feel  the  need  of  a  simple  table 
which  will  show  at  a  glance  the  chief  sources  of  the 
protein  or  muscle-making  portion  of  our  feeds.  The 
United  States  government  is  authority  for  the  correct- 
ness of  these  analyses. 

TABLE  A. — COMMON  HIGH  PROTEID  FEEDS 


PROTEIN 

CARBOHY- 
DRATES 

FAT 

Buckwheat  middlings  . 
Cottonseed  meal  .  .  . 
Linseed  meal  .... 
Linseed  meal  .... 
Malt  sprouts  .... 

28.9 

42-3 
32-9 

33-2 

27  2 

41.9 
23.6 

35-4 
38-4 
48  c 

7-1 
I3-I 

7.9  (old  process) 
3.0  (new  process) 

I   7 

Brewers'  grains  (dry)  . 
Gluten  meal  .... 
Soja  (or  soy)  beans  .  . 
Cowpeas  . 

19.9 
29.4 

34-o 

20  8 

tuo 

51-7 
52.4 
28.8 

er  7 

5.6 

6-3 
16.9 
I  A. 

jj'/ 

The  meat  meals  and  scraps  put  out  by  various  firms 
may  run  anywhere  from  40  per  cent  upward  in  protein. 
Milk  albumen,  another  commercial  animal  feed,  is  also 
high  in  this  most  precious  element.  Gluten  feed,  which  is 
the  form  now  more  easily  procured  (possibly  the  only 
one),  may  run  a  little  lower  in  protein  and  one  half  higher 


82  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

in  fat  than  the  gluten  meal  given  in  the  table.  The 
glutens  are  the  waste  of  starch  manufactured  from  corn. 
Malt  sprouts  and  brewers'  grains  are  a  by-product  of 
malting,  as  their  names  imply.  The  source  of  cottonseed 
meal  is  also  known  from  its  name,  but  it  is  a  by-product, 
the  cotton  itself  being  the  chief  aim.  Buckwheat 
middlings,  a  good  egg  feed,  is  the  refuse  from  manufac- 
turing buckwheat  flour,  and  there  is  a  buckwheat  bran, 
coarser,  containing  more  fiber,  and  of  less  feeding  value. 
Linseed  meal  is  the  waste  from  producing  linseed  oil. 
The  old  process  did  not  extract  so  much  oil  as  the  new 
process,  hence  the  difference  in  analysis.  A  ground 
linseed  is  also  to  be  had,  but,  as  it  contains  over  30  per 
cent  of  fat,  is  not  recommended  as  poultry  feed. 

I  desire  that  you  will  give  much  thought  to  the  above 
table,  because  upon  the  proper  combination  of  the  pro- 
teids  with  the  other  food  elements  may  rest  your  ultimate 
success.  It  is  really  primer  work.  Other  things  count 
strongly,  but  this  point  must  be  emphasized. 

The  fact  before  mentioned  that  protein  is  often  more 
costly  in  some  one  of  these  feeds  than  in  the  others  has 
much  bearing.  This  feature  is  not  constant.  That  is, 
supply  and  demand  or  market  manipulations  may  send 
the  price  of  the  very  one  you  like  best  up  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  the  protein,  in  which  it  is  rich,  may  cost  you 
possibly  twice  as  much  as  the  same  amount  of  it  in  some 
other  item  from  the  table.  If  you  cannot  classify  the 
feeds,  here  is  an  excellent  chance  for  you  to  stumble 
over  a  pitfall.  Suppose  that  flaxseed  is  very  high  in 
comparative  price,  this  year,  while  buckwheat  is  very 
low.  This  may  mean  that  the  two  by-products  from 
these  grains  will  have  about  the  same  comparative  actual 


84  THE   BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 

value.  Will  you  be  quick  enough  to  change  at  once 
from  the  high-priced  to  the  low-priced  source  of  protein, 
and  open-eyed  enough  to  change  back,  or  discard  both, 
if  next  year's  prices  change  radically  ?  This  is  the  basis 
of  successful  and  economical  feeding.  The  by-products 
may  follow  the  staple  grains  up  or  down  in  price,  or 
may  increase  in  continuous  ratio  as  prices  go  on  up- 
ward, and  as  certain  things  are  more  universally  called 
for  by  poultrymen  who  are  learning  fast.  Some  staple 
feeds  are  becoming  almost  prohibitive  in  price.  The 
editor  of  Poultry,  living  in  the  far  West  and  contending 
with  heavy  freight  rates,  finds  meat  scrap  costing  him 
five  dollars  a  hundred.  We  used  to  get  it  here  for  less 
than  two  dollars  ;  now,  in  the  East,  we  pay  three  dollars, 
or  perhaps  more. 

One  cannot  go  far  wrong  in  the  use  of  the  common 
grains,  if  these  are  plump,  in  good  condition,  not  too  new, 
and  not  fed  to  excess.  The  word  "excess"  may  have 
two  meanings  here :  one  may  feed  to  excess  by  giving 
more  feed  than  the  birds  can  digest,  or  he  may  feed  any 
one  element  to  excess  by  using  too  much  of  it,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  other  elements.  Feeding  too  much  starch, 
proportionately  to  the  other  elements,  is  a  very  general 
mistake  —  possibly  the  one  most  frequently  made  in  feed- 
ing grains  for  egg  production.  Yet  when  feeders  learn 
that  it  is  the  protein  that  brings  the  eggs,  when  it  is 
added,  because  the  ordinary  feeds  do  not  contain  enough 
for  heavy  egg  production,  it  becomes  a  temptation  to 
use  too  much  protein  ;  which  may  bring  on  bowel  diffi- 
culties or  satiety.  In  a  state  of  nature,  the  fowls  ate 
many  seeds  (grains),  it  is  true ;  but  the  majority  of  wild- 
ing seeds  are  small,  and  they  were  well  balanced  by  the 


STUDYING   FEEDING   VALUES  85 

green  vegetable  feed  and  the  insects  which  the  birds 
could  usually  find.  Besides,  they  needed  an  egg  ration 
only  during  a  very  small  portion  of  the  year,  before  the 
grasping  hand  of  man  "  improved  "  them  for  his  own 
ends. 

The  matter  of  green  feeds  is  so  important  that  it  must 
have  a  chapter  to  itself.  When  poultrymen  speak  of 
"balance"  in  a  ration,  they  are  very  likely  to  mean 
only  the  proper  proportions  between  the  amounts  of 
protein  and  carbohydrates  present.  But  in  balancing 
for  perfect  health,  the  pasturage  becomes  one  of  the 
most  important  items. 

A  few  years  ago,  all  the  advanced  poultrymen  were 
splitting  hairs  over  the  proper  balance  of  the  various 
elements  in  all  the  feeds  used,  with  the  emphasis,  as 
stated  above,  on  the  two  chief  elements  as  to  quantity. 
This  phase  passed,  and  we  now  hear  far  less  about  it. 
But  it  remains  true  that  a  rough  balance  between  the 
muscle  makers,  the  fats,  the  true  energy  makers  and,  in 
the  case  of  partly  herbivorous  animals,  the  green  feed, 
must  always  be  maintained.  The  feeder  needs  to  have 
in  mind  a  general  idea  of  the  proportions  of  each  in  any 
ration  which  he  may  "  throw  together "  at  any  time. 
These  proportions  must  be  such,  first,  as  to  keep  the 
animal  in  rugged  health  ;  second,  they  must  also  be  such 
as  will  render  the  stock  productive  to  the  highest  degree 
that  can  be  reached  with  safety  to  the  producing  animal. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  exists 
only  for  the  purpose  of  making  life  more  tolerable  and 
work  easier  and  more  productive  for  all  the  people  whom 
it  reaches.  It  has  analyzed  practically  all  table  foods 
for  the  good  of  the  households,  and  every  common  grain 


86 


THE   BEGINNER   IN   POULTRY 


and  mill  stuff  for  the  benefit  of  the  stock.  These 
analyses  were  repeated  again  and  again,  in  order  to  get 
a  fair  average  of  figures  in  the  ratios.  In  some  cases, 
over  300  samples  were  analyzed.  Some  very  simple 
tabulated  forms  will  give  our  eyes  the  information  which 
they  seize  so  much  more  quickly  than  do  other  servants 
of  the  brain  :  — 


TABLE  B.     U.  S.  TABLE  OF  AVERAGE  VALUES  FOR  WHOLE 
GRAINS 


MUSCLE 
MAKERS 

ENERGY 
MAKERS 

FATS 

FIBER 

Corn    

10.5 

49.0 

3-4 

2.1 

Wheat      

II.9 

71.9 

2.1 

1.8 

Oats    

u.8 

.    59-7 

5.0 

9-5 

Barley      

12.4. 

6q  8 

i  8 

2  7 

Buckwheat    .           .... 

IO  O 

64.  1 

2  2 

87 

Sorghum  seed    

9.I 

70.0 

3-6 

2.6 

Rice    

7-4 

79.2 

2.1 

1.8 

TABLE  C.  U.  S.  TABLE  OF  AVERAGE  VALUES  FOR  GROUND  GRAINS 


• 

MUSCLE 
MAKERS 

ENERGY 

MAKERS 

FATS 

FIBER 

Corn  meal     

92 

68.7 

3-8 

1.9 

Oat  feed  

16.0 

59-4 

7-1 

6.1 

Corn  and  oats  (equal  parts) 

9.6 

71.9 

4.4 

5.8  (est.) 

Barley  meal 

IO  C 

66  i 

2  2 

6  c 

1WO 

y**'j 

***3 

Wheat  bran  

15.4 

53-9 

4.0 

9.0 

Wheat  middlings    .... 

15.6 

60.4 

4.0 

4.6 

Wheat  shorts     

14.9 

56.8 

4-5 

7-4 

Rice  bran      

12.  1 

49-9 

8.8 

9-5 

STUDYING   FEEDING  VALUES  87 

What  is  scientifically  called  "  nitrogen-free-extract," 

I  have  headed  simply  "  energy  makers."    These  analyses 
are  for  "fresh,  or  air-dry  "  materials. 

Please  note  that  in  the  mind  of  each  feeder  need  to 
be  niches  wherein  are  kept  the  several  food  groups. 
One  group  is  the  clovers,  the  key  interest  of  which  is 
that,  when  dried,  they  run  from  10  to  15  per  cent  pro- 
tein, white  clover  being  the  highest,  the  cowpeas  (a  near 
relative)  next.  These  also  furnish  necessary  roughage, 
averaging  from  above  one  fifth  to  above  one  fourth  fiber. 
A  second  group  is  the  high-protein  grains,  those  running 

I 1  and  12  per  cent  and  upward.     Special  localities  have 
shown  the  higher  averages.  Among  these  are  Tennessee, 
Virginia,  Colorado,  and  Indiana  wheat  (see  Government 
Handbook),  Colorado  wheat,  under  50  analyses,  aver- 
aging above   13   per  cent.     Massachusetts  sweet  corn 
runs  well  toward  13  per  cent  protein.     A  third  group  is 
the  high-fiber  stuffs,  including  buckwheat,  soy  beans, 
cowpeas,  rye,  and  oats ;  barley  meal,  buckwheat  bran, 
and  malt  sprouts  are  extra  high,  because  the  mill  stuffs 
and  wastes  contain  more  than  their  natural  proportion 
of  hulls.     Such  poor  stuffs  as  rice  hulls  and  cottonseed 
hulls  are  more  than  one  third  rough  fiber,  —  the  latter,  in- 
deed, nearer  one  half,  —  while  corncob  meal  is  nearly 
as  high.     These  are,  I  consider,  entirely  too  rough  and 
coarse  to  use  as  feed  for  fowls,  even  though  they  average 
above  4  per  cent  of  protein  content. 

An  important  group  is  that  of  the  extra  high-protein 
vegetable  products,  most  of  which  are  mill  stuffs,  ground 
and  sometimes  sold  in  combinations.  This  group  will 
include,  from  the  cereals,  gluten  feed,  linseed  meal  (new 
process  preferred  because  containing  less  fat),  buck- 


88  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

wheat  middlings.  Cottonseed  meal,  ground  peas,  and 
ground  beans  belong  here ;  most  of  these  analyze  be- 
tween 1 8  and  33  per  cent  protein,  the  highest,  cottonseed 
meal,  running  above  42  per  cent.  The  animal  meals  go 
still  higher.  These  are  good  friends  to  the  poultryman, 
but  sometimes  deceitful,  so  that  he  needs  to  know  all 
that  is  to  be  learned  about  them,  and  to  be  able  to  group 
and  interchange  them  at  will.  His  great  economic 
struggle  will  be  in  connection  with  them,  also,  let  it  be 
remembered. 

It  will  not  do  to  jump  at  the  conclusion  that  cotton- 
seed meal,  because  vegetable  and  high  in  protein,  is 
therefore  the  best  feed  to  be  had.  A  correspondent  who 
ranks  with  the  Beginners  writes  me  that  he  has  discov- 
ered through  experience  one  fact,  viz.,  that  cottonseed 
meal  is  the  cheapest  source  of  protein.  In  the  same 
letter  he  inquires  how  to  treat  rheumatism  in  his  stock 
(probably  legweakness!),  failing  utterly  to  connect  this 
reliance  on  cottonseed  meal  with  its  legitimate  outcome. 
One  who  feeds  this  needs  to  erect  the  red  flag  of  "  dan- 
ger ahead"  on  the  bin  or  barrel  containing  the  feed. 
And  especially  is  this  the  case  with  the  Beginner.  Some 
experts  say  that  cottonseed  meal  is  never  safe  to  feed 
young  animals;  others  believe  that  good  judgment  may 
make  its  use  safe.  Speaking  especially  of  cattle  feeding, 
the  New  Jersey  Station  (Bulletin  174)  has  said:  "The 
injurious  effects  which  have  sometimes  been  reported 
from  the  use  of  this  highly  concentrated  food  have,  in 
many  cases,  at  least,  been  due  to  feeding  it  by  itself  or 
without  being  intermixed  with  any  other  foodstuff. 
When  it  is  thoroughly  incorporated  with  other  foods, 
especially  those  of  a  starchy  nature,  it  can  safely  be 


A  Peanut  Plant.     In  the  South,  the  Peanut  Furnishes  Valuable  Feed  for  Fowls, 
High  in  Protein  Averaging  nearly  Twenty-Six  Per  Cent 


9° 


THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


used  in  the  quantity  indicated  (4.5  pounds  daily  per  eow) 
without  injurious  effects."  Two  hundred  five-pound 
hens  equal  in  weight  one  thousand-pound  cow ;  which 
fact  may  give  us  a  basis  for  feeding  this  meal  safely  to 
fowls. 

Concerning  protein  values,  Professor  H.  R.  Lewis  of  the 
New  Jersey  Experiment  Station  said,  in  1912,  in  a  plat- 
form talk  to  poultry  keepers  of  the  state  :  "  Protein  is  the 
feed  most  expensive  to  buy,  most  difficult  to  produce  on 
the  farm,  and  which  we  absolutely  must  have.  Its  place 
cannot  be  taken  by  carbohydrates  or  fats.  Meat  and 
bone,  milk  and  insects,  best  supply  it.  One  pound  of 
digestible  protein  to  each  100  pounds  of  live  weight  is 
about  right  (to  feed).  Digestibility  is  an  important  fea- 
ture. The  three  objects  of  feeding  fowls  are  mainte- 
nance, flesh  production,  and  egg  production,  and  the 
proper  food  is  determined  by  the  product  desired." 

As  a  compact  table  for  making  up  rations  for  any  de- 
sired purpose,  Professor  Lewis  showed  the  following, 
on  a  chart :  — 

FINISHED  PRODUCTS  BELOW  CONTAIN: 


CARBOHY- 

WATER 

ASH 

PROTEIN 

DRATES  AND 

FAT 

Hen    .          .     . 

54.8 

3  8 

21.6 

17 

Pullet  .          ... 

CC    A 

•3    A 

21.2 

18 

Capon      .... 

41.6 

3-7 

19.4 

33-9 

Fresh  egg 

65.7 

12.2 

II.4 

8.9 

The  feeds  which  best  supply  the  elements  needed  in 
the  product  are  the  ones  to  be  chosen.  Comparison 
study  of  these  tables  is  urged. 


STUDYING    FEEDING   VALUES 
FOOD  MATERIALS  BELOW  CONTAIN: 


91 


CARBOHY- 

WATER 

ASH 

PROTEIN 

DRATES  AND 

FAT 

Corn 

ii  6 

1.  1 

7.O 

76.4. 

Oats 

1  1  O 

•j.O 

9.2 

q6.8 

Meat  scrap    .     .     . 

10.7 

4.1 

66.2 

3i-i 

Green  clover      .     . 

71.0 

2.1 

2.9 

16.4 

VIII 
A   STUDY  OF   JUICY    FEEDS 

The  Value  of  Juicy  or  "  Green  "  Feeds  —  Values  Tabu- 
lated for   Quick  Information  —  Practical  Value  of  a 
Knowledge  of  Water  Content,  etc.  —  Sprouting  Grain 
and  Cultivating  Green  Crops  —  Fodder  Stuffs  —  Onions 
-  Weeds  —  Poultry  and  Fruit 

UPON  a  just  appreciation  of  the  value  of  green  feeds, 
in  the  proper  proportion,  must  rest  the  success  of  the 
many  who  must  yard  their  fowls  ;  and  this  especially 
when  the  space  is  limited.  No  matter  how  good  tJie  care 
otherwise,  Jiighly  concentrated  foods  like  grams,  mills  tuffs, 
and  meat  will  eventually  ruin  the  flocks,  unless  the  supply 
of  green  stuff  be  liberal.  The  fowl  on  good  range  which 
receives  a  bit  of  supplementary  feed  once  a  day  is  a  free 
and  independent  entity  and  is  not  very  likely  to  get  into 
feeding  difficulties  of  any  kind  during  the  open  season, 
unless  she  is  accidentally  choked  or  poisoned.  At  the 
north,  during  the  period  of  compulsory  housing,  she  is 
no  better  off  than  her  near  neighbor,  the  yarded  town 
hen.  She  may  fare  even  worse,  from  the  fact  that  her 
owner  has  not  hitherto  been  obliged  to  learn  how  to 
handle  her  in  confinement.  On  the  farms  where  fowls 
range  free  during  most  of  the  year,  so  little  thought  is 
given  to  winter  care  that  the  winter  season  is  often 
merely  a  season  of  existence,  a  period  of  unhappy  wait- 
ing for  decent  conditions  to  arrive  with  the  spring.  This 
is  one  strong  reason  why  so  many  farm  fowls  lay  no 
winter  eggs. 

92 


A  STUDY   OF  JUICY  FEEDS 


93 


For  all  housed,  or  closely  yarded  stock  fowls,  then,  we 
may  make  this  rule :  The  thrift  of  the  birds,  as  far  as 
feeds  may  affect  it,  will  be  in  exact  proportion  to  the 
balance  of  the  ration  with  the  "  green"  feeds,  juicy  and 
dry.  The  hays  and  especially  the  clovers,  dry,  form  an 
important  item  in  winter  feeding,  and  give  bulk  without 
furnishing  so  much  water  as  to  overdo  the  matter.  The 
word  "balance,"  in  this  case,  may  be  taken  to  refer  not 
so  much  to  actual,  comparative  contents  of  the  fresh, 
vegetable  foods  which  we  are  now  especially  to  consider, 
but  rather  to  a  certain  effect  upon  the  bird  which  is  due 
to  the  use  of  vegetable  juices,  etc.  The  table  below  may 
show  how  largely  made  up  of  water  the  fresh  vegetable 
growths  commonly  fed  to  fowls  —  or  which  might  easily 
be  fed  to  fowls  —  are  : 


PROTEIN 

ASH 

WATER 

Red  beets     
Potatoes  .-    . 

1-5 

2  I 

1.4 
I 

87.73 
78  Q 

Carrots    

IIC 

I 

/o.y 

88  6 

Cabbage 

•  *  j 
2  A. 

I  4 

QO   C 

Onions 

I  A. 

6 

y^1  3 

87  6 

Squashes       

.66 

.41 

Q4  88 

Lettuce  leaves  

2  27 

I  71 

86  28 

Oat  fodder    .... 

•y   A 

2  c 

62  2 

Sweet  corn  kernels      .     . 
Corn  fodder  . 

2.88 
i  8 

**a 

.56 
I   2 

82.14 

7Q  1 

Sweet  cornstalks    
Maize  silage 

i-7 

I   7 

1.25 
I   4 

/V'J 
80.86 
7O   I 

Cowpeas 

»•/ 

2      A 

I   7 

/y.i 

83  6 

Red  clover    

4.4 

2   I 

70  8 

Orchard  °rass    

2  6 

2 

7-3 

I  J 

94  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

Apples,  as  a  regular  supply,  are  followed  by  excellent 
results  in  the  egg  basket.  They  are,  of  course,  well  up 
in  water  content,  and  the  sugar  in  the  juice  is  more  than 
one  tenth.  In  Rhode  Island  Greenings,  which  are  es- 
pecially fine  apples,  the  analysis  is  given  as  11.97  Per 
cent.  Sweet  apples,  strangely  enough,  are  given  as  being 
a  little  lower,  but  only  a  fraction  of  one  per  cent.  Pears 
have  not  quite  9  per  cent  of  sugar.  Most  of  these  figures 
are  averages.  Samples  vary  endlessly.  For  instance, 
oat  fodders,  in  five  samples  only,  varied  from  1.5  per  cent 
of  ash  to  4.2  per  cent.  Though  all  were  rated  as  "  fresh, 
air-dry,"  some  would  doubt-less  be  nearer  ripening  than 
others.  At  least,  this  might  easily  account  for  a  consid- 
erable variation.  To  call  attention  to  the  difference  be- 
tween the  analyses  of  green  fodders  and  dried,  I  mention 
here  that  Red  clover  hay  is  given  as  containing  1 1.33  per 
cent  of  moisture,  2.07  of  nitrogen,  with  9.51  per  cent  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  potassium  oxide.  A  rough  general 
rule  might  be  that  air-dried  samples  of  grasses,  etc., 
analyze  about  three  times  as  high  in  protein,  etc.,  as  the 
green  samples.  In  winter,  a  combination  of  the  cut 
clovers,  clover  chaff,  etc.,  works  well  in  connection  with 
a  juicy  vegetable  like  cabbage  or  mangel-wurtzels. 

In  order  to  grasp  the  practical  value  of  this  knowledge, 
in  its  application  to  supplying  green  feed  to  yarded  stock, 
we  need  to  fix  our  minds  especially  on  two  facts  :  (a)  the 
wastes  cannot  be  swept  from  the  animal  system  without 
water  in  abundance  ;  (£)  the  eggs  which  are  to  pay  for  a 
hen's  keeping  cannot  be  produced  by  yarded  birds  with- 
out supplied  water  in  abundance,  since  the  average  egg 
is  itself  73.7  percent  water,  and  the  maximum  amount  is 
almost  75  per  cent. 


A   STUDY   OF  JUICY  FEEDS  95 

If  we  were  to  put  this  into  the  form  of  a  logical  con- 
clusion, as  in  school,  we  should  finish  :  "  Therefore,  in 
order  to  insure  healthy  fowls  and  a  maximum  product, 
no  poultryman  can  afford  to  allow  the  drinking  water 
to  evaporate  into  thin  air  in  summer  or  to  congeal  into 
ice  in  winter.  For,  drinking  water  should  be  always 
accessible  to  the  fowls." 

Another  imperative  "  therefore "  is :  Therefore,  no 
poultryman  who  wishes  his  fowls  to  pay  a  profit  can 
afford  not  to  provide  them  either  with  liberty  and  nu- 
tritious range,  or  else  with  abundance  of  juicy  vegetable 
growth  in  good  variety,  when  under  yarded  conditions. 

A  familiar  example  of  making  use  of  what  one  has 
lies  in  the  case  of  unsalable  potatoes.  If  these  can  be 
chopped  till  they  are  easy  to  swallow,  and  mixed 
with  a  little  bran,  they  may  form  an  occasional  ration 
of  which  the  fowls  will  become  very  fond  and  will  add 
both  to  their  thrift  and  their  productiveness.  Beets  of 
any  kind,  cut  in  half  and  skewered  against  the  wall  at 
one  foot  from  the  ground,  or  fed  in  a  protected  trough, 
often  prove  reliable  "  first  aids  to  health,"  and  also  to 
productiveness.  The  beet  pulp  —  a  gray,  chippy  look- 
ing stuff  —  which  is  a  waste  product  from  the  manu- 
facture of  beet  sugar,  is  a  notably  good  feed  for  those 
who  must  buy.  It  comes  in  large  bags.  We  have  paid 
from  $i,  when  it  was  less  known,  to  $1.35  at  the  present 
time.  The  Experiment  Stations  say  that,  although  it 
does  not  analyze  high  in  any  essential  element,  all  stock 
thrives  better  with  it  than  without  it. 

A  few  hours'  soaking  will  metamorphose  a  half-peck 
of  it  into  a  half  bushel,  possibly,  of  attractive,  juicy  beet 
shavings.  The  animals  unite  in  decidedly  favorable 


96  THE   BEGINNER   IN   POULTRY 

testimony  as  to  the  palatability  of  the  mess.  It  is  best 
fed,  I  think,  in  connection  with  one  third  its  bulk*  of 
clover  meal  or  chaff  and  the  same  bulk  of  bran,  with 
corn  meal  and  wheat  middlings  enough  to  form  a  rather 
firm  and  somewhat  sticky  mash.  If  the  meal  can  be 
well  scalded,  it  will  behave  much  better.  One  may  add 
meat  scrap  in  any  desired  quantity,  up  to  the  10  per 
cent,  if  the  meat  is  to  be  fed  with  the  mash.  My  own 
preference  would  be  to  place  the  meat,  mixed  with  a 
very  little  clover  meal,  in  feeding  racks  by  itself,  leav- 
ing it  before  the  fowls  all  the  time,  or  for  a  specified 
portion  of  each  day,  the  covers  being  closed  during  the 
"  close  hours." 

The  one  ideal  way  to  handle  small  lots  of  birds  which 
are  kept  for  fancy  breeding  and  which  must  be  con- 
stantly segregated  from  others  is  to  have  two  long  runs 
sloping  gently  away  from  each  pen.  Openings  should 
admit  the  fowls  to  either,  as  the  owner  desires.  While 
the  fowls  occupy  one,  the  other  is  seeded  and  growing 
a  crop  of  green  stuff,  into  which  they  may  be  turned  as 
soon  as  it  is  well  established.  As  they  often  trample 
and  foul  more  than  they  eat,  it  is  better,  for  a  time,  to 
let  them  into  the  fresh  yard  for  stated  periods,  perhaps 
an  hour  at  night  and  another  in  the  morning.  As  the 
growth  hardens,  they  may  occupy  the  yard  all  day, 
when  the  companion  yard  is  to  be  sown. 

If  fowls  are  not  to  be  kept  in  separate  small  flocks, 
yet  must  be  restrained,  it  is  better  to  have  one  yard 
entirely  surroitnd  the  long  house,  or  the  series  of  colony 
houses,  in  order  that  a  few  furrows  of  earth  may  be 
sown  and  turned  or  cultivated  every  second  day,  oats 
being  thus  buried  very  liberally  beneath  the  surface. 


A  STUDY   OF  JUICY    FEEDS 


97 


This  will  give  the  fowls  plenty  of  green  feed,  as  it 
starts  into  sprouting  and  growth.  Some  have  as- 
sured me  that  barley  is  even  better,  as  it  tillers  more 
abundantly;  i.e.  each  seed  throws  out  more  stalks,  when 
it  lies  long  enough  to  get  a  real  start.  The  New  Jersey 
Station,  after  experimenting  with  sprouted  oats,  wheat, 
and  buckwheat,  announced  that  in  every  case  oats  pro- 
duced most  pounds  and  made  most  gain. 


Sprouted  Oats,  Tops  Four  Inches  High,  Making  Real  Green  Feed  For  Yarded  Birds 

In  the  case  of  the  yarded  and  segregated  small  flocks 
of  high-priced  birds,  it  can  probably  be  made  to  pay  to 
bury  grains  in  the  soft  earth  by  hand  power.  The  fowls 
get  the  needed  exercise  actively,  and  the  needed  juicy 
morsels  at  one  and  the  same  time,  while  the  owner  is 
saved  the  effort  of  growing  and  handling  the  sprouted 
grain.  The  deeper  it  is  buried,  the  longer  it  lies  moist, 


98          THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

and  the  better  it  will  be  when  the  fowls  eventually  un- 
earth it.  This  also  gives  the  fowls  the  constant  oppor- 
tunity for  occupation  and,  one  might  say,  recreation  of 
the  fowl  kind.  This  means  much  in  the  better  health 
of  the  flocks. 

Much  can  be  done  in  growing  rape,  large-head  let- 
tuces and  cabbages  in  very  rich,  cool  ground,  in  plots 
alongside  the  chicken  yards  if  it  is  possible  to  find  the 
right  soil  there.  A  yard  that  has  been  used  as  a  fowl 
run  is  good.  The  condition  of  the  soil  makes  a  great 
variation  in  this  class  of  feeds.  I  have  seen  soils  kept 
virtually  bare  by  the  presence  and  ranging  of  a  small 
flock ;  in  others  of  similar  area  rich  and  well  grassed, 
the  ranging  of  an  equal  number  of  birds  made  little  im- 
pression in  wearing  away  the  thick,  grassy  turf.  Here 
is  variation  in  opportunity,  and  variation,  be  sure,  in 
product,  because  of  natural  variations  in  conditions.  The 
chief  point  is  that  the  birds  must  really  get  what  they 
need.  The  easiest  way  is  the  best,  if  fully  feasible.  One 
who  has  choice  is  throwing  away  his  lead  if  he  do  not 
select  the  most  favorable  conditions,  where  Nature  is  his 
best  help.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  the  next  best  thing 
is  to  provide  the  best  conditions  as  cheaply  and  easily 
as  it  can  be  well  done. 

There  is  a  very  easily  raised  product  for  early  summer 
use  in  the  fancy  curled  mustards.  The  fowls  do  not 
like  them  as  well  as  they  do  lettuce,  but  on  some  soils 
they  will  furnish  more  feed,  almost  equally  tender.  They 
should  not  be  allowed  to  go  to  seed,  as  they  might  then 
become  a  bad  weed,  like  other  mustards.  These  are  so 
beautifully  curled  and  crested  that  they  are  about  equal 
to  parsley  for  garnishing,  and  to  some  palates  they  make 


A   STUDY  OF  JUICY  FEEDS  99 


Heads  of  Pearl  and  Hungarian  Millets.     Plants  and  Seeds  Make  Good  Poultry 

Feed 

a  most  acceptable  source  of  greens.     For  this  purpose, 
and  as  greens  for  the  poultry,  they  need  to  be  used  while 


100  THE  BEGINNER  IN   POULTRY 

rather  young  and  crisp.  The  frilly  growth  makes  them 
easy  for  the  fowls  to  attack.  Ease  of  division  is  quite 
a  point  of  advantage  in  a  green  stuff  that  is  neither 
rooted  in  the  ground  nor  cut  fine  before  being  supplied. 

Such  fodder  stuffs  as  sorghum,  the  sweet  millets,  and 
especially  sweet  corn  are  of  especial  value  as  supplied 
green  feed  for  geese,  when  this  method  of  handling  is 
necessary.  The  geese  delight  in  the  sweet  cornstalks, 
which  are  better  when  slender  and  young.  These  are 
equally  good  for  hens  and  ducks,  if  they  can  be  made 
fine  enough.  When  corn  is  planted  more  thinly  and 
allowed  to  ear,  the  milky  ears,  just  a  little  older  than  for 
the  table,  furnish  one  of  the  most  attractive  and  whole- 
some feeds  for  either  chicks  or. fowls. 

Those  who  can  raise  onions  will  find  them  one  of  the" 
cheapest  green  feeds  available  for  chickens  and  any  fowls 
not  laying.  Mr.  John  Robinson  says  that  cooked  onions 
may  be  fed  even  to  layers,  in  quantities  not  above  five 
pounds  to  a  hundred  birds.  Too  heavily  fed,  they  taint 
the  eggs  with  their  penetrating  odor.  These  are  most 
excellent  to  give  zest  to  the  mashes  and  thrift  to  the 
fowls.  It  is  well,  with  these,  as  with  any  new  offerings, 
to  mix  them  well,  in  small  proportion,  with  some  well- 
liked  ration,  until  the  fowls  form  a  liking  for  them. 
Both  the  chicks  and  the  older  fowls  become  ravenous 
for  onions,  cooked  cabbage,  and  the  like,  once  they  have 
learned  how  good  they  really  are. 

During  a  portion  of  the  year,  the  fowls  can  be  kept  in 
pretty  good  health  with  little  green  feed  aside  from  what 
may  be  supplied  in  certain  favored  weeds.  There  are 
reasons  besides  the  mere  flavor  why  the  fowls  will  eat 
some  supplied  stuffs  and  reject  other  sorts.  The  pale 


A  STUDY  OF  JUICY  FEEDS 


101 


green  somewhat  ragged  "  pigweed "  grows  quickly,  is 
tender,  and  offers  itself  in  natural  mouthfuls.  The  same 
is  true  of  purslane,  the  "  pusley  "  of  old-fashioned  folk. 
Tenderness  is  the  first  point  with  such  natural  supplies. 
Summer  grass  is  first  favorite,  and  large  tufts  of  it  pull 
up  easily  when  the  soil  is  wet  and  soft;  A  few  geese,  if 
yarded,  will  devour  several  small  armfuls  daily. 


Pearl  Millet,  Seven  Feet  High :  Makes  Shade  and  Feed  for  Poultry 

Most  poultrymen  who  raise  yarded  stock  aim  to  grow 
fruit  trees  in  the  yards.  It  is  almost  the  only  rational 
way,  since  shade  is  such  a  vital  necessity  to  the  fowls. 
All  waste  fruit  forms  good  feed  for  the  poultry,  and  the 
ground  pays  a  double  profit,  the  only  difficulty  being  in 
protecting  the  trees  while  small,  and  wiring  them  off  as 
they  come  to  the  ripening  period  each  year.  With 
a  small  family  orchard,  individual  trees  can  be  wired  off 


<ry   A^fHn 

IQ2    ;  ;,>THE, BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY. 

without  moving  the  flocks  at  all.  Some  have  said  that 
fruit  trees  grown  in  poultry  yards  were  sappy,  brittle, 
and.  short-lived.  When  this  is  true,  I  think  it  is  chiefly 
because  of  lack  of  balance  in  the  fertilizer.  The  drop- 
pings from  the  fowls  make  the  ground  rich  in  nitrogen, 
the  most  expensive  part  of  a  fertilizer,  but  may  leave  it 
lacking  in  potash.  But  potash  alone  can  be  bought  by 
the  hundred  pounds.  Either  muriate  of  potash,  or  sul- 
phate of  potash  is  a  good  fertilizer  for  fruit  trees,  and 
would  solve  the  problem  of  some  of  those  barren  orchards 
which  grow  for  twenty  years  (owners  have  told  this 
story)  without  fruiting.  These  potashes  are  very  con- 
centrated, and  a  little  goes  a  long  way.  Some  California 
orchardists  say  that  nitrate  of  soda  alone  will  be  all  that  is 
needed  in  some  soils.  This  shows  its  effect  very  quickly, 
and  would  please  all  for  this  reason.  I  use  it  on  early 
vegetables  to  hasten  maturity,  but  have  not  tried  it  on 
trees.  Muriate  and  sulphate  of  potash  have  given  us  good 
results  on  peaches,  pears,  plums,  and  apples,  in  connection 
with  poultry  droppings  distributed  by  the  fowls  them- 
selves. The  yards  are  plowed  each  season,  and  cultivated 
later ;  more  than  once,  some  years.  This  is  chiefly  to 
sweeten  the  ground  for  the  fowls.  The  potash  helps  here, 
also.  If  I  had  wood  ashes,  I  should  probably  use  those, 
as  all  farmers  do.  But  in  buying,  I  prefer  to  buy  the  potash 
"straight,"  as  wood  ashes  are  said  to  vary  much  in  quality. 
I  think  it  should  appeal  to  the  common  sense  of  all, 
that,  if  one  does  not  want  spongy,  sappy  trees  which  pro- 
duce too  much  foliage  and  fruit  of  second  quality  and  infe- 
rior quantity,  it  behooves  him  to  supply  all  the  great,  impor- 
tant elements  needed  by  the  trees  ;  even  as  he  must  furnish 
all  the  important  elements  in  the  food  for  his  fowls. 


IX  -; 

HOW   TO    PREVENT    DISEASE 

The  Difficult  Disease  Problem  —  Cutting  Off  the  Sources 

—  Common  Percentages  of  Loss  —  The  Vital  Question 

—  Active  Agencies  of  Prevention  —  Analogy  Between 
Man  and  Lower  Animals  —  Exercise  —  Patent  Feeders 

-  Ventilation  —  Disinfection  —  Patent  Cures  —  White 
Diarrhoea 

THE  "  Disease  Problem  "  is  one  of  the  most  difficult 
of  all  his  puzzles,  for  the  Beginner.  It  is  usually  far 
more  difficult  for  a  man  than  for  a  woman  poultry 
keeper,  since  she  finds  it  rather  easy  to  relate  her 
knowledge  of  human,  physical  ills,  to  those  of  the  out- 
door friends  under  her  care.  Since  the  puzzle  is  such 
a  difficult  one,  and  often  so  endless  in  its  various  forms, 
it  is  quite  the  part  of  good  sense  to  inquire  whether 
there  be  not  some  way  to  cut  off  the  physical  ills  of 
fowls  at  their  source. 

It  might  be  rather  shocking  for  me  to  affirm,  outright, 
that  this  source  is,  for  the  most  part,  man  himself.  But 
it  is  quite  largely  true,  because  most  of  the  ills  of  poul- 
trydom  are  ills  relating  to  unnatural  conditions.  And 
the  birds  cannot  apply  the  remedies  which  instinct 
would  suggest,  because  they  are  not  free  agents.  We 
might  look  at  a  single  fact  concerning  man  himself,  to 
find  whether  or  not  he  is  fitted  to  deal  rightly  with  fowls 
in  matters  pertaining  to  health.  One  of  the  most  widely 
experienced  physicians  and  surgeons  of  our  day,  Dr.  J. 

103 


104  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

H.  Kellogg,  states  that  we  have  an  average  of  about 
three  million  sick  persons  in  this  country,  all  the  time, 
and  that,  of  this  number,  just  about  one  half  are  need- 
lessly ill,  because  of  dissipation,  or  excess,  or  overeat- 
ing, etc.  If  this  is  the  best  man  can  do  for  himself, 
what  hope  is  there  'that  he  will  do  better  with  his 
stock  ?  Just  this,  it  seems  to  me :  that  he  can  restrain 
his  stock  from  excess  and  lack  of  judgment  in  eating, 
when  he  cannot  (so  he  says)  restrain  himself.  In  rig- 
orous selection  of  conditions,  and  in  sanitation,  then, 
lies  man's  power  to  bury  tJie  great  problem,  instead  of 
burying  his  ailing  fowls. 

Some  of  the  older  poultrymen,  speaking  out  of  bitter 
experience,  insistently  proclaim  that  the  ax  is  the  best 
medicine.  But  this  is  made  to  refer  to  individual  cases 
of  disease,  which  are  constantly  cropping  out  in  some 
flocks.  It  may  be  only  putting  the  matter  in  a  different 
form  to  say  that  culling  out  weak  specimens  between 
breeding  seasons  is  the  best  way  to  raise  the  average 
health  of  the  flock.  These  come  to  the  ax,  or  its  equiv- 
alent, of  course.  But  in  the  case  of  culling  only  as  in- 
dividuals develop  disease,  throughout  the  season,  one  is 
very  likely  to  raise  progeny  from  some  of.  the  weaker 
fowls,  to  take  their  places  and  to  inherit  their  woes  an- 
other season.  The  method  of  allowing  none  but  lusty 
individuals  to  go  into  the  stock  flock  at  all,  cuts  off  at 
the  outset  the  possibility  of  getting  descendants  from 
the  weaklings.  It  is  the  only  sensible  and  sure  way. 

This  is  not  saying  that  one  will  thus  cut  off  all  possi- 
bility of  disease.  But  it  makes  more  difference  than 
the  breeder  who  has  not  tried  it  could  well  believe.  It 
is  very  common,  in  average  flocks,  to  lose  four  or  five 


HOW   TO  PREVENT  DISEASE 


105 


hens  a  year  out  of  seventy-five  or  a  hundred.  Some 
have  even  reported  losses  as  high  as  between  20  and 
30  per  cent,  through  experiences  common  to  all  flocks  in 
the  regular  course  of  living,  such  as  the  molt,  etc.  The 
point  one  needs  certainty  on  is,  how  much  disease  ought 
to  be  expected,  under  the  best  care  and  conditions  ;  how 
much  of  the  average  loss  can  be  warded  off  ?  Fowls 
pushed  by  means  of  stimulants  to  the  very  limit  of  ca- 
pacity for  egg  production  must,  of  necessity,  show  some 
breakdowns.  The  vital  question  is,  "  How  many  ?  " 


Cornell  Water  Fount,  with  Protecting  Cover  Removed. 
Water  Wards  Off  Disease 


Clean,  Cool  Drinking 


I  think  no  poultryman  of  any  prominence  exists  who 
does  not  lose  some  birds.  If  working  for  records,  the 
loss,  which  may  be  called  almost  unavoidable,  will  come 
from  trouble  with  the  egg  organs.  In  the  famous  lay- 
ing contests  at  the  Agricultural  College  at  Hawkesbury, 
Australia,  some  hens  died,  even  when  kept  in  lots  of  six, 
and  carefully  selected  in  advance  for  special  test.  We 
can  know  the  facts  about  these  things  only  from  expe- 
rience, —  our  own  or  that  which  'others  report.  I  do 


106  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

know  of  one  large  firm  which  reports  a  loss  of  not  more 
than  one  per  cent,  among  its  thousands  of  layers  during 
the  entire  year.  This  may  be  regarded  as  the  ideal 
toward  which  every  poultry  raiser  should  struggle.  But 
only  the  best  of  selective  and  preventive  work  can  bring 
any  poultry  raiser  close  to  this  ideal. 

The  owners  of  this  great  farm,  the  size  of  whose  op- 
erations may  be  indicated  by  the  fact  that  it  places,  on 
occasion,  orders  for  20,000  hatching  eggs  with  one  firm, 
have  described  their  system  somewhat  in  detail.  One 
year,  out  of  a  lot  of  several  thousand  cockerels,  1500 
were  selected  as  the  most  desirable.  This. bunch  was 
reduced,  later,  to  1000.  When  they  were  about  half 
grown,  a  final  and  more  exacting  selection  threw  out 
one  half  of  those  remaining.  On  the  same  basis  (that 
of  saving  about  one  in  eight  as  breeders),  the  farm  pro- 
ducing 100  young  cockerels  would  keep  the  best  dozen 
only  for  breeders.  On  some  farms,  under  small  han- 
dlers, selection  is  much  more  rigid  than  this  ;  only  the 
best  two  or  three  raised  being  reserved  to  head  breed- 
ing pens.  Selection  being  first  for  vigor,  then  for  type 
and  beauty  and  prolificacy  and  all  other  desired  quali- 
ties, the  few  reserved,  if  from  good  parentage,  ought  to 
be  almost  perfection  as  far  as  the  eye  can  judge.  (Fur- 
ther discussion  of  selective  breeding  will  be  found  in 
the  chapter  on  Line  Breeding.) 

Our  first  and  keenest  inquiry,  here,  must  be  directed 
toward  finding  out  the  active  agencies  which  enter  into 
practical  prevention  ;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  into  the 
spread  of  disease.  The  great  preventive  agencies  are 
good  food,  proper  exercise,  fresh  air  and  the  sunshine 
which  is  its  complement  and  a  disinfectant  as  well, 


HOW   TO   PREVENT   DISEASE 


107 


chemical  disinfectants,  etc. ;  the  great  disease-producing 
and  disease-spreading  agency  is  germ  contagion. 

We  have  the  specific  discussion  of  feeding  principles 
in  another  chapter. 
It  seems  a  very 
simple  proposition 
to  state  that  all 
necessary  exercise 
may  be  provided 
through  the  method 
of  administering  the 
feed,  and  furnish- 
ing abundant  litter. 
But  the  litter  prob- 
lem, simple  as  it 
looks,  is  a  perennial 
problem  to  poultry- 
men  ,  chiefly  because 
most  materials  tend 
to  mat  together 
when  slightly  moist 
and  trampled,  so 
that  the  grains  fail 
to  become  buried  in 
the  litter,  and  its 
reason-to-be  is  thus 
not  justified.  I  find 
that  it  helps  one 
toward  correct  prac- 
tice to  know  the  rea- 
sons for  any  suggested  method.  To  be  sure,  the  bene- 
ficial result  of  exercise. for  any  animal  should  not  need 


Turn-stile  "  Automatic  Grain  Feeder, 
ercise  Makes  for  Health 


Ex- 


108  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

to  be  explained  to  any  one  who  understands  animals. 
And,  as  man  is  himself  an  animal,  he  should  be  able  to 
reason  out  the  value  of  exercise  to  all  other  animals. 
But,  I  think  he  tends  to  forget  that  he  is  an  animal,  on 
the  physical  side,  and  thus  often  fails  to  draw  the  analogy 
between  himself  and  the  lower  animals.  To  be  sure, 
fowls  are  not,  in  all  things,  like  the  four-footed  animals, 
yet  the  main  organs  —  the  bodily  engine  parts  —  are  much 
the  same  for  all. 

Exercise  for  fowls  can  be  encouraged  in  varying 
ways.  To  provide  litter  for  scratchers  and  water  privi- 
leges for  swimmers  is  the  easiest  and  quickest  way  to 
insure  exercise.  Running,  flying,  scratching,  and  swim- 
ming are  Nature's  methods  of  exercising  her  winged  and 
scratching  and  swimming  birds.  Flight,  the  poultry- 
man  must  usually  curtail  more  or  less  to  suit  his  own 
interest.  It  follows  justly  that  he  must  take  a  bit  of 
extra  trouble  to  provide  other  exercise  for  his  fowls. 

There  are  several  patent  feeders,  especially  designed 
to  induce  the  fowls  to  scatter  small  grains  by  their  own 
activities.  This  they  do  by  tilting  or  jarring  the  recep- 
tacle containing  feed,  and  the  busier  they  become,  the 
more  feed  they  get.  The  receptacle  is  usually  hung 
two  or  three  feet  above  the  birds,  at  least.  The  existence 
of  these  ought,  it  seems  to  me,  to  stimulate  poultry 
feeders  to  whom  such  a  method  of  feeding  would  be 
helpful,  to  invent  for  home  use  devices  whereby  the 
grains  might  be  thus  scatteringly  given  down.  All  the 
more  when  the  poultryman  provides  in  large  quantities, 
expecting  to  replenish  containers  only  at  intervals  of  a 
week  or  so.  It  is  quite  necessary  for  those  who  thus 
depend  on  providing  feed  at  long  intervals  to  have  a 


HOW  TO  PREVENT  DISEASE 


109 


fixed,  habitual  systematic  interval  of  inspection  of  feed 
boxes.  Otherwise,  the  birds  will  surely  be  left,  at  times, 
without  the  proper  supply  of  food. 

One  of  these  patent  devices  for  "  little  and  often " 
feeding  of  grains  is  shown  in  the  cut.  A  modification, 
which  is,  I  think,  of  recent  invention,  provides  a  set  of 
feeders  for  each  and  every  pen  in  a  continuous  house, 
all  attached  to  a  rod  running  the  length  of  the  building; 
each  having  a  cut-off,  and  all  being  operated  from  one 
point  by  means  of  simple  gearing. 

Although  a  few  of  the  teachers  are  going  back  to  the 
long-discarded  plan  of  warming  the  poultry  houses  arti- 
ficially, —  for  the  Mediterranean  breeds,  at  least,  —  the 
great  majority  are  swinging  toward  the  cloth-front  house 
or  the  open,  sunny  shed,  for  daytime  housing  of  layers,  at 
least.  It  has  always  been  found  difficult  to  ventilate 
closed  houses  properly  without  admitting  drafts.  Prob- 
ably the  best  device  for  this  purpose  is  the  overhead, 
diffused  air  ventilation  gained  by  passing  the  air  admitted 
above  through  loosely  laid  straw.  (Possibly  this  will 
not  .seem  to  some  a  strictly  correct  use  of  the  term 
"diffused.")  To  break  the  stream  of  air  into  small 
enough  particles  so  that  it  shall  not  come  upon  the  fowls 
as  a  draft,  is  the  key  to  poultry-house  ventilation.  A 
method  open  to  all  who  have  built  a  high  enough  house 
is  to  cut  a  small  door  in  the  gable  peak  on  each  end. 
A  very  loose  ceiling,  laid  just  high  enough  overhead  to 
permit  the  easy  passage  of  the  attendant,  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  support  straw,  which  is  then  filled  loosely  in 
above  the  ceiling.  The  ventilating  doors  may  be  made 
to  slide,  and  can  then  be  adjusted  at  any  time  to  meet 
prevailing  weather  conditions. 


no 


THE   BEGINNER  IN   POULTRY 


The  one  great  agent  or  force  now  relied  upon  to 
combat  contagion  is  disinfection.  Sunlight  disinfection 
is  best  of  all,  and  should  be  always  operative  at  danger 
points.  Disinfectant  material  is  sometimes  strewn  dry 
upon  board  and  flooring  surfaces  ;  it  is  sometimes  added 
to  thin  whitewash  ;  it  is  sprayed  into  incubators  and 
over  eggs  and  upon  mucous  surfaces  when  these  can  be 

reached  ;  it  is  given  as  a  solution 

in  the  drinking  water;  it  is  fur- 
nished the  fowls  in  the  form  of 
tablets  to  be  taken  in  internal 
doses,  individually.  The  best  of 
the  M.  D.'s  are  coming  more 
and  more  to  order  first  a  pur- 
gative, to  be  followed  by  a  bowel 
disinfectant,  for  nearly  all  dis- 
eases. So  many  and  such  varied 
diseases  are  now  being  laid  to 
the  door  of  incomplete  digestion 
(either  of  stomach  or  of  bowels) 
that  it  seems  quite  the  part  of 
folly  not  to  learn  the  theory  and 
the  "  first  aid  methods  "  of  modern  medical  practice  and 
to  apply  them  to  daily  life.  This  may  be,  first,  in  the 
use  of  proper  family  foods  and  proper  ways  of  eating ; 
second,  in  applying  these  laws  as  far  as  is  practicable  to 
the  care  of  the  various  animals  under  our  care.  The 
D.  V.  M.'s  are  following  close  upon  the  methods  of  the 
M.  D.'s  and  both  are  using  applied  common  sense  freely. 
Some  of  the  best  poultrymen  rely  largely  upon  air- 
slaked  lime  for  disinfection.  Thrown  upon  roosts  and 
floors  and  into  coops  and  nests,  common  testimony  rates 


Fowl's  Gizzard,  Abnormal 
through  Disease 


HOW   TO  PREVENT   DISEASE  III 

it  as  a  reliable  preventive  of  much  disease.  Because 
fowls  have  sometimes  been  injured  by  eating  lumps  of 
lime,  others  are  shy  of  using  this  cheap  aid.  The 
remedy  is  —  not  to  distribute  lumps.  Whitewash  is  a 
universal  cleanser  and  purifier,  and  its  whiteness  has  also 
a  value  in  the  fowl  house  in  the  reflection  of  light. 

The  roup  medicines,  the  diarrhoea  and  cholera  medi- 
cines, the  applications  for  chicken  pox  and  mangelike 
affections,  depend  largely  for  their  curative  virtues  on 
the  disinfectants  which  they  contain.  The  lice  paints 
most  popular  contain  such  ingredients.  The  whole 
round  of  preventive  —  and,  one  might  add,  of  curative 
practice  as  well  —  revolves  about  the  use  of  disinfec- 
tants. 

Even  for  "  gapes  "  (the  choking  caused  by  thread- 
like red  worms  in  the  windpipe)  the  only  practical,  im- 
mediate general  treatment,  when  the  runs  cannot  be 
changed  to  fresh  ones,  is  to  spray  these  runs  with  a  not 
too  strong  disinfectant.  Twenty  years  ago,  I  raised 
chicks  on  thoroughly  infected  ground  with  practically 
no  loss,  by  spraying  the  soil  with  disinfectants. 

It  is  rather  safe  to  say  that  the  most  widely  reaching 
scourge  of  the  modern  poultry  yard,  "  white  diarrhoea," 
in  its  several  forms,  has  absolutely  no  chance  of  cure 
unless  it  be  along  the  line  of  preventive  and  disinfective 
treatment.  Scientists  making  a  special  study  of  this 
disease  have,  up  to  1912,  acknowledged  that  the  only 
advance  toward  successful  treatment  lay  in  the  use  of 
disinfectants.  The  treatment  was  applied  to  the  eggs, 
the  incubators  and  the  brooders,  the  excreta,  etc. ;  and, 
even  with  this,  the  breeding  of  rugged,  outdoor-grown 
stock  was  named  as  the  best  surety  against  the  disease. 


112  THE  BEGINNER  IN   POULTRY 

During  the  investigations  of  Professors  Graham  and 
Rettger  in  Connecticut,  while  seeking  the  germ  of  white 
diarrhoea,  it  was  found,  not  only  that  the  dead  chicks 
and  the  living  chicks  carried  this  germ,  but  that  the 
eggs  also,  and  some  of  the  breeding  stock,  were  infected 
with  it.  Some  one  said  recently  that  he  knew  of 
growers  who,  last  year,  lost  as  high  as  1200  out  of  1500 
chicks  hatched.  I  count  it  absolute  folly  even  to  hope 
to  succeed  with  poultry  under  such  conditions;  and  as 
absolute  folly  to  expect  to  produce  good  chicks  from 
hens  or  eggs  which  harbor  these  destructive  germs. 

Several  years  ago,  Editor  Robinson,  in  an  article  on 
the  waning  health  and  productiveness  of  poultry,  said 
that  some  mysterious  cause  was  at  work,  lowering  the 
vitality  of  our  flocks  in  general,  year  by  year.  He 
seemed  to  have  no  inkling  as  to  the  real  cause;  but  I 
do  not  think  it  is  necessary  to  look  farther  than  the 
unnatural  conditions  under  which  very  much  of  our 
breeding  stock  is  kept,  to  find  this  undermining  cause. 
It  is  exceedingly  difficult,  even  with  the  best  of  han- 
dling, to  hold  breeding  stock  in  permanent  confinement, 
or  to  raise  stock  for  future  breeders  in  confinement,  and 
still  to  bring  to  maturity  the  best  of  vigorous,  well- 
grown  progeny  from  such  stock.  It  means  the  use  of 
every  device  known  to  make  unnatural  conditions  to 
approach  the  natural,  and,  in  addition,  it  means  con- 
tinued selection  for  vigor  and  constitution.  Theoreti- 
cally, the  great  "  first  aid  to  the  injured"  would  be  fresh 
blood  from  stock  raised  on  juicy,  fully  nutritious  range ; 
but,  practically,  the  fancier  finds  this  too  detrimental  in 
other  directions. 


X 

MOLDS,    SMUTS,    AND    BACTERIA 

Mysterious  Enemies  —  Preventive  Forethought  —  Using 
One's  Records  —  Blocking  Out  a  System — Aspergillosis 

—  Breathing  Organs  of  Fowls  —  Poor  Curing  and  Mold 
-  Handicaps  of  the  City-bred  Farmer  and  Poultryman 

—  Studying  ground  Stuffs  —  Milk  and  Bacteria 

NOT  only  every  Beginner,  but  virtually  every  worker 
with  poultry,  meets,  somewhere  along  the  road,  mys- 
terious enemies  to  his  fullest  success.  These  cause 
him  infinite  anxiety  and  questioning.  One  may  fight  an 
open  foe  with  a  good  will  and  with  courage ;  but  the 
secret  enemy  kills  courage;  and  even  hope,  sometimes. 
These  invisible  foes  are  usually  to  be  grouped  under 
the  three  heads — molds,  smuts,  and  bacteria.  Their 
habits  are  such  that  they  may  affect  whole  broods,  whole 
flocks;  they  may  spread  destruction  like  a  pestilence, 
when  the  knowledge  of  a  single  fact  might  have  made 
the  worker  victorious  over  them.  Their  power  for  wide- 
spread destruction  rests  in  two  items :  they  are  invisible 
to  the  naked  eye,  or  virtually  so ;  and,  they  are  often  in 
the  food. 

A  promising  brood,  with  which  the  utmost  pains  have 
been  taken,  may  have  reached  almost  the  age  of  safety, 
in  thrift  and  happiness.  Suddenly  one  or  two  are 
noticed  to  be  ailing,  and,  before  the  owner  has  had 
much  more  than  time  to  wonder  what  can  be  the  trouble, 
nearly  all  are  showing  signs  of  distress.  In  a  day,  it 
may  be,  —  or  two  days,  —  or  a  week,  all  have  "  dropped 
i  113 


II4  THE  BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 

off."  It  is  utterly  discouraging,  and  the  chief  pull  on 
the  courage  is  the  fact  that,  so  long  as  he  does  not  know 
what  the  cause  may  be,  the  worker  has  no  warrant  that 
the  next  lot  will  do  any  better.  There  are  so  many  un- 
expected happenings  all  along  the  way,  that  the  poultry 
worker  must,  above  all  things,  be  a  student  and  an 
observer  of  conditions.  If  he  does  not  know,  he  must 
learn  how  to  diagnose  every  difficulty  that  may  arise. 
The  very  best  teachers,  full  of  eagerness  to  impart  the 
wisdom  of  which  they  are  supposed  also  to  be  so  full, 
cannot  tell  him  everything,  in  detail.  A  principle  is 
worth  more  to  him  than  a  hundred  details,  if  he  have 
judgment;  if  lacking  this,  he  is  not  the  one  to  succeed 
soon  with  poultry. 

There  are  many  methods  which  can  be  described ; 
good  ones,  and  successful.  Every  novice  asks  first 
and  most  insistently  for  methods.  It  takes  a  big  book 
to  give  methods,  when  a  very  small  one  would  give 
the  underlying  principles.  But,  after  a  flock  is  acci- 
dentally poisoned,  or  is  gripped  by  some  hidden  foe 
of  which  one  knows  nothing,  neither  methods  nor  prin- 
ciples are  of  much  avail.  The  key  to  the  situation  is 
foreknowledge,  and  that  is  of  no  avail  after  the  crisis 
is  upon  one.  Its  work  must  be  all  put  in  as  preventive 
detail,  or  preventive  principle.  It  is  just  at  this  point 
that  most  inexperienced  poultry  raisers  and  very  many 
who  have  been  in  the  work  for  years,  make  their  worst 
errors ;  they  do  not  exercise  forethought.  This  seems 
a  difficult  thing  to  learn  to  do.  Somehow,  the  experi- 
ence and  the  advice  of  others  who  have  made  mistakes, 
cannot  be  adopted  and  adapted  in  advance,  by  learners 
in  the  way.  When  these  later  workers  have  fallen  into 


MOLDS,   SMUTS,  AND   BACTERIA  115 

the  slough,  when  they  have  made  the  same  mistakes, 
then,  and  then  only,  does  the  advice  gain  the  ear  of 
the  inner  consciousness,  so  to  speak. 

It  is  just  because  this  is  the  average  habit  of  mind, 
that  we  so  often  say  that  it  needs  a  person  of  syste- 
matic mind,  and  one  who  can  exercise  forethought,  to 
care  for  poultry  most  successfully,  and  with  the  least 
charges  "  to  experience."  Consider  that  these  are 
often  the  heaviest  charges  against  the  industry,  in 
specific  instances.  These  are  the  real  cause  of  small 
profits,  and  of  losses,  when  these  last  are  met.  And 
it  is  because  one  can  go  over  the  work  and  put  his 
finger  on  the  point  of  loss  and  failure  so  much  better 
if  he  has  kept  accounts,  or  a  diary  of  work,  that  these 
are  urged.  They  are  the  beginnings  of  system ;  but 
they  are  not  more  than  beginnings,  unless  the  worker 
go  over  them  carefully  at  the  beginning  of  a  new  season, 
and  find  out  exactly  what  they  teach,  and  then  take 
steps  to  do  better.  An  irresponsible  person  will  not, 
or  cannot,  do  these  things;  hence,  such  a  one  is  bound 
to  be  more  or  less  of  a  failure  as  a  poultry  raiser. 

The  above  may  seem  to  be  a  digression.  To  me,  it 
is  not ;  because,  it  leads  to  the  chief  point  I  wish  to 
impress,  viz.,  the  necessity  of  forethought.  How  much 
feed  shall  I  be  likely  to  want  ?  What  is  likely  to  be 
the  capital  required  for  this  ?  What  is  likely  to  be  the 
normal  loss  ?  The  normal  product  ?  Where  will  dis- 
ease and  disaster  be  likely  to  sneak  in  on  me  ?  In 
other  words,  one  needs  to  go  over  the  whole  work, 
preferably  on  paper,  and  block  out  a  system  of  han- 
dling every  important  item  of  it,  remembering  that, 
where  arbitrary  figures  are  to  be  used,  it  is  the  normal. 


Il6  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

and  not  the  possible,  that  should  be  taken  as  a  basis  of 
expectation.  I  saw  a  statement,  recently,  that  just  this 
fault  belittles  nearly  all  the  work  published  from  the 
Experiment  Stations :  that  they  are  too  prone  to  give 
favorable  figures,  but  leave  unnoted  items  of  expense, 
such  as  labor,  etc.  Possibly  the  critic  did  not  consider 
how  difficult  it  might  be  to  allow  a  fair  amount  for 
labor,  since  those  who  do  experimental  work  need  to 
have  superior  help  (at  superior  prices,  probably) ;  and 
apportionment  to  specific  jobs  may  also  be  difficult.  In 
fact,  it  seems  to  be  a  human  failing  to  ignore  the  difficul- 
ties of  "  the  other  fellow  "  and  to  look  at  his  results  only, 
casting  upon  these  a  very  critical  eye.  Perhaps  that  is 
the  way  we  keep  each  other  in  the  straight  line ;  but  it 
does  not  always  seem  oolite  generously  fair. 

As  an  instance  of  the  way  the  mind  of  the  owner 
works,  an  item  from  a  poultry  periodical  of  the  spring 
of  1911  may  be  illuminating.  The  breeders  of  one 
certain  variety  had  been  asked  by  the  editor  how  many 
eggs  per  hen  they  considered  a  fair,  average  yield  per 
year,  in  that  variety.  A  baker's  dozen  of  replies  came 
to  hand.  One  breeder  gave  himself  leeway  by  making 
the  output  of  pullets  from  160  to  200;  several  gave 
185  as  the  average  they  considered  "fair";  one  did 
not  choke  on  200  as  his  estimate  of  this  "  fair  "  average 
for  the  breed;  and  my  own  average,  figured  from  all 
but  one,  which  I  will  mention  later,  makes  the  consen- 
sus of  opinion  163,  and  pulled  down  to  this  chiefly  by 
the  figures  of  one  who  probably  estimated  the  pullet 
year  from  a  different  date,  as  he  gave  1 38  for  pullets, 
and  160  for  hens.  One  man  alone  gave  facts  instead 
of  estimates,  stating  that  his  entire  flock  of  many  hun- 


MOLDS,   SMUTS,   AND    BACTERIA  117 

dreds  of  birds  actually  averaged  from  125  to  130  eggs 
each  year.  If  we  note  also,  in  this  connection,  that 
the  average  as  reported  for  the  country  has,  in  past 
censuses,  lain  considerably  below  100,  we  shall  get 
a  still  clearer  view  of  how  the  owner's  interests  may 
influence  his  judgment,  admitting  that  all  have  given 
their  honest  opinion. 

A  second  question,  as  to  when  the  variety  reaches 
laying  maturity,  was  answered  so  variously  as  to  make 
one  wonder  if  there  were  any  general  basis  of  judg- 
ment. The  time  given  varied  from  "four  and  five 
months "  to  "  seven  months "  and  "  six  to  eight 
months."  Is  it  not  fair  to  ask  whether  this  is  actual 
variation,  actual  guessing,  or  variation  in  habits  of 
mind  in  the  owners  ? 

Or,  is  it  pertinent  to  inquire  whether  molds,  smuts, 
bacteria,  or  the  scores  of  other  differences  in  environ- 
ment or  feeding  or  handling,  could  make  all  these  vari- 
ations in  results  in  one  single  point  ? 

The  great  point  to  be  made  in  connection  with  dis- 
eases due  to  molds,  several  of  which  are  grouped  as 
species  of  aspergillosis,  when  mentioned  scientifically,  is 
that  they  do  not  tend  to  yield  to  treatment.  This  means 
that  the  one  way  to  avoid  the  losses  which  they  threaten 
is  to  prevent  their  incursions.  In  nature,  they  fasten 
themselves  preferably  to  dead  organic  matter,  but  they 
are  very  adaptable,  and  can  exist  under  varying  con- 
ditions. The  puffball  is  a  familiar  form  of  fungus  which 
takes  on  a  dusty  condition.  The  fungi  which  cause  as- 
pergillosis, though  not  so  much  in  evidence  as  the  puff- 
balls,  haunt  the  dusty  particles  which  rise  from  musty 
grains,  straw,  etc. 


Il8  THE   BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 

In  order  to  understand  many  things  in  reference  to 
fowls,  it  is  important  to  know  something  about  their 
breathing  apparatus.  The  more  common  diseases  of 
fowls  attack  the  digestive  organs  and  the  respiratory 
organs.  Birds  breathe  faster  than  does  man,  and  they 
have  an  addition  to  the  bronchial  passages  in  the  form 
of  air  sacs.  Of  these  there  are  nine,  mostly  in  pairs, 
and  named  the  cervical  (two),  the  interclavicular  (one, 
formed  from  two,  originally),  the  anterior  thoracic  (two), 
the  posterior  thoracic  (two),  and  the  abdominal  (two) 
sacs.  Dr.  Salmon  says  that  these  act  as  reservoirs  of 
air  "d&di  feed  the  lungs  between  breaths,  thus  insuring  a 
plentiful  supply  of  air  all  the  time. 

As  fowls,  having  no  sweat  glands,  cannot  throw  off 
impurities  as  man  does,  partly  by  sweating,  the  lungs, 
aided  by  the  air  sacs,  must  perform  more  duties  than  those 
belonging  to  the  lungs  in  man.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
these  sacs,  located  at  neck,  breast  (front  and  rear),  and 
abdomen,  and  in  some  birds,  opening  even  into  the 
bones  of  wing,  thigh,  and  breast,  communicate  with 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  body. 

Any  infection  which  is  in  the  air  as  dust  can  scarcely 
be  hindered  from  attacking  the  air  passages  of  birds. 
Dr.  P.  T.  Woods  says  that  such  infective  spores  are 
found  in  moldy  litter,  in  damp,  swampy  land,  in  the  dust 
of  grain,  and  in  any  land  which  has  been  heavily  ma- 
nured and  exposed  to  long-continued  damp  or  humid 
weather.  Any  one  who  knows  farm  life  knows  how 
often  poorly  cured  straw,  hay,  or  stalks  becomes  moldy 
in  the  mows  and  stacks;  sometimes  even  before  the 
shocks  and  cocks  have  left  the  fields  where  they  were 
grown.  This  is  a  matter  of  weather  and  of  curing; 


MOLDS,   SMUTS,   AND   BACTERIA  119 

which  curing  the  weather  largely  controls.  Even  a 
good  farmer  is  subject  to  having  spoiled  hay,  straw, 
grain,  etc.  Not  so  often  as  his  more  careless  and  inef- 
ficient neighbor,  to  be  sure,  but  every  agriculturist  is 
much  dependent  on  weather  conditions :  he  never  con- 
trols them,  although  he  may  learn  to  dodge  some  of 
their  vagaries.  And,  even  after  grain  is  garnered  and 
threshed,  it  sometimes  molds  and  heats  in  the  granaries. 

The  poultryman  is  dependent  on  the  farmer,  the 
miller,  the  grain  dealer,  many  times.  If  brought  up  in 
town,  he  may  know  absolutely  nothing  about  all  this 
early  history  of  his  straw  and  grain;  nothing  of  the  pos- 
sibilities of  lurking  death  in  the  litter  or  the  grain  which 
he  buys.  And,  because  he,  too,  is  under  the  dominion 
of  Nature's  laws,  the  bran  or  corn  meal  which  he  buys 
may  heat  and  mold  in  his  own  bins,  without  his  suspicion 
of  anything  wrong.  The  born  farmer  learns  these 
tricks  of  circumstances  as  he  grows  from  boyhood  to 
manhood ;  the  townsman  without  country  background 
may  be  an  utter  ignoramus,  having  not  one  idea  about 
hundreds  of  things  which  are  as  the  alphabet  to  one 
brought  up  under  farm  conditions.  Points  about  milling, 
storage,  handling,  fanning,  sifting  grain  and  mill  stuffs, 
must  be  learned  by  the  poultryman  who  comes  from  city 
conditions  item  by  item.  And,  in  the  meantime,  we  can 
only  say  to  him :  "  You  must  be  sure  to  buy  only  sound, 
bright  grains  and  first-class  mill  products,  and  to  avoid 
dusty  litter." 

One  of  the  poultry  periodicals  published,  a  few  years 
ago,  a  question  from  one  of  its  subscribers,  which 
startled  even  the  M.  D.  at  the  head  of  the  Department, 
seasoned  by  years  of  answering  questions  pertaining  to 


120  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

fowl  diseases.  Some  sick  birds  were  described  as  going 
blind ;  others  as  unable  to  swallow ;  others  as  thirsty 
and  ravenous  for  food;  some  were  lame,  some  had  lost 
control  of  the  legs,  some  were  very  nervous  ;  with  some 
there  were  symptoms  of  internal  pain ;  some  showed 
convulsive  attacks,  and  some  had  discharges  and  cheesy 
swellings  of  eye,  nostril,  and  mouth.  Let  me  hasten  to 
say  that  such  aggregated  evil  conditions  are  not  at  all 
common ;  indeed,  they  were  so  uncommon  as  to  show 
inexcusable  carelessness  or  lamentable  ignorance,  and 
the  first  thing  the  M.  D.  advised  was  to  kill  all  that  were 
much  sick.  Then  he  ordered  disinfection,  internal,  ex- 
ternal, and  almost  eternal,  with  burning  of  litter  and 
change  of  feed.  The  owner  confessed  to  feeding  kaffir 
corn,  millo  maize,  and  broom  corn  seed  "in  all  its  dust 
and  straw,"  and  said  that  he  had  heard  that  broom  corn 
dust  was  poisonous  to  human  flesh  when  the  skin  was 
broken.  The  M.  D.  stated  that  the  mold  spores  con- 
tained in  the  dust  of  the  broom  corn  seed  and  straw  were 
undoubtedly  the  root  of  the  trouble,  and  ordered  the 
whole  outfit  of  unusual  grains  discontinued,  at  least  for 
a  time. 

It  seems  to  me  that  a  majority  of  people  are  so  con- 
stituted that  they  cannot  follow  directions  unless  they 
know  the  "why."  The  Beginner  who  can  follow  di- 
rections, as  given  by  those  already  successful  and  expert, 
need  never  fall  into  any  such  difficulty  as  the  above. 
But  I  give  this  instance  as  a  striking  warning  not  to 
use  dusty  stuff  when  it  seems  possible  that  the  dust  may 
be  due  to  mold. 

It  is  good  training  to  visit  a  mill,  or  several  dealers  in 
mill  products  and  study  the  appearance  of  the  ground 


MOLDS,   SMUTS,   AND   BACTERIA  121 

stuffs.  The  bright,  clean  appearance  of  first-class 
ground  products  soon  appeals  to  the  eye.  The  nose 
may  also  help  the  eye  ;  even  the  "feel"  of  these  prod- 
ucts is  something  to  be  learned,  as  having  a  bearing 
on  the  question  of  quality  and  adaptability  of  feeds. 
When  moist  mash  is  used,  it  makes  much  difference  to 
the  birds  whether  or  not  it  is  of  a  certain  consistency. 
Many  mill  products  will  give  only  a  union  of  grain  and 
water,  from  which  the  water  tends  to  separate  continu- 
ally. Others,  added,  may  change  it  into  a  soft,  smooth, 
attractive  foodstuff  which  the  fowls  welcome  eagerly. 
And  these  things  make  a  difference  with  growth  and 
egg  yield. 

Many  of  the  symptoms  of  paralysis,  nervous  contor- 
tion, etc.,  mentioned  above  may  go  with  bacterial  affec- 
tions. Such  trouble  may  come  from  allowing  the  birds  to 
drink  barnyard  seepage  ;  even  a  drinking  vessel,  allowed 
to  grow  slimy  in  hot  weather,  may  be  the  source  of  these  or 
kindred  troubles.  Foul"  ground,  foul  houses,  foul  water, 
or  foul  feed  may  lead  to  "mysterious"  disease,  under 
some  of  the  heads  which  we  are  now  considering. 

In  the  summer  time,  bran,  corn  meal,  and  meat  meal 
need  to  be  closely  examined.  The  grains  may  heat  and 
mold ;  the  meat  meal  may  be  of  such  quality  as  to  be 
entirely  unfit  for  young  chickens,  even  though  the  older 
birds  were  able  to  use  it  without  becoming  sick.  Good 
scrap  is  bright  in  color,  and  it  is  usually  thought  best  to 
buy  that  which  is  not  too  fine,  lest  it  contain  fertilizer 
refuse. 

Milk  is  a  well-known  carrier  of  bacteria ;  milk  that 
shows  less  than  100,000  such  germs  to  the  cubic  inch 
being  passed  as  very  good  by  some  Health  Boards. 


122  THE    BEGINNER  IN   POULTRY 

These  bacteria  are  vegetable  growths,  and  they  are  of 
two  kinds  :  noxious,  and  the  reverse.  At  least,  many 
claim  that  only  the  real  disease  germs  are  noxious,  in 
milk.  There  is  nothing  better  for  poultry,  both  old  and 
young,  than  good  milk ;  but  where  milk  is  given  as  a 
drink,  in  hot  'weather,  special  care  is  necessary.  There 
is  nothing  else,  I  think,  that  will  become  filthy  and  evil- 
smelling  as  quickly  as  a  milk  fountain  that  is  not  regu- 
larly cleansed,  unless  it  be  the  ground  about  it,  where 
the  birds  drip  the  liquid.  The  vessels  should  be  made 
as  clean  as  for  the  table,  twice  a  day,  in  hot  weather. 
The  ground  should  be  spaded  at  once,  if  it  becomes  foul, 
and  a  broad  fountain  base  to  catch  leakage  or  drip  is  a 
wise  precautionary  supply.  An  old  pie-plate  will  do  the 
work,  if  nothing  else  be  available. 

Although  it  is  contended  that  there  are  several  forms 
of  "white  diarrhoea,"  the  one  discovered  by  Professor 
Rettger,  working  with  the  Connecticut  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, may  possibly  deserve  more  than  usual  notice  by  chick 
raisers,  because  the  source  is  affirmed  to  be  the  mother  hen. 
The  Station  work  ;n  1910  —  the  data  being  published  in 
April,  1911 — covered  one  set  of  comparative  experi- 
ments, in  which  200  chicks,  hatched  together,  but  part 
purposely  infected  with  white  diarrhoea,  were  used.  It 
showed  both  the  virulence  of  the  disease  and  the  vigor 
of  uninfected  chicks.  All  were  incubator  chicks. 
Division  was  into  three  infected  lots,  and  three  check  lots, 
uninfected.  One  lot  was  infected  from  a  chick  that  had 
died  from  white  diarrhoea ;  one  from  an  infected  hen ; 
one  from  the  yolk  of  a  fresh  egg.  Two  of  these  cul- 
tures had  been  carried  over  from  the  previous  year.  By 
the  fifth  day,  14  in  one  lot  were  already  dead.  At  the 


MOLDS,  SMUTS,  AND   BACTERIA  123 

end  of  25  days,  71  per  cent  of  the  three  infected  lots  were 
dead,  while  the  survivors  were  stunted  and  anaemic.  In 
the  three  lots  of  uninfected  chicks  having  the  same  care, 
only  four  out  of  the  hundred  had  died.  One  inference 
from  the  above  might  be  that  it  is  unwise  to  feed  egg  to 
small  chicks  in  yards  where  white  diarrhoea  of  this  type 
is  prevalent. 


XI 

MEDICINES,    DISINFECTANTS,   AND    INSEC- 
TICIDES 

Household  Remedies  for  Poultry  —  Packaged  Supplies 
—  Cleansing,  While  Nature  Repairs  —  Discharges  and 
Protrusions  —  A  Spraying  Paint  —  An  Incubator  Dis- 
ease —  "  Always  at  It  " 

IT  is  far  better  not  to  need  a  medicine  chest  than  to 
provide  the  very  best  that  could  be  thought  out.  But, 
human  nature  being  what  we  know  it  to  be,  we  can 
easily  foresee  that  the  average  worker  will  not  fail  to 
need  medicines  at  times,  even  though  the  times  be 
infrequent.  The  poultry  keeper  who  can  learn  to  use 
his  household  remedies  will  be  in  a  measure  less  depend- 
ent than  one  who  buys  medicines  especially  put  up  and 
specifically  offered  to  poultrymen.  This  is  partly 
because  modern  "  specifics  "  are  rather  likely  to  be  old 
friends  under  new  and  strange  names,  with  50  per  cent 
to  100  per  cent  added  to  the  price,  —  to  pay,  I  judge, 
for  the  making  over.  This  means  that  kerosene,  or 
gasoline,  made  into  Robinson  Crusoe's  Lice  Paint  with 
the  addition  of  something  equally  cheap,  then  canned, 
may  appear  as  a  most  valuable  poultry  supply  at  one 
dollar  or  one  dollar  and  a  quarter  a  gallon. 

Or,  take  our  somewhat  intimate  friend,  tobacco  dust ; 
or  perhaps  plaster  of  Paris.  Juggled  and  combined  a 
little,  they  come  out  in  the  open  and  claim  to  be  one  of 
the  necessities  of  the  poultryman's  existence,  at  25  cents 
or  50  cents  for  a  little  box  holding  it  may  be  three  or  four 

124 


MEDICINES,  DISINFECTANTS,  AND   INSECTICIDES        125 

ounces.  Egg  Forcers,  too,  follow  the  rule :  cayenne 
pepper,  linseed  meal,  and  a  few  other  of  our  old  friends, 
with,  possibly,  gunpowder  and  Spanish  flies  —  who 
knows  ?  —  masquerade  as  a  new  and  wonderful  Egg 
Food. 

Expenses  for  boxing,  labeling,  and  advertising  new 
supplies  must  be  met,  and  a  reasonable  profit  added,  of 
course.  This  is  perfectly  legitimate,  and  there  are  many 
business  men  handling  poultry  for  pleasure  or  to  pro- 
vide fresh  supplies  for  the  family  table,  who  are  glad  to 
pay  the  manufacturer  for  doing  the  detail  work  of  mak- 
ing supplies  of  all  kinds  ready  for  instant  use.  But  one 
should  consider  that  this  work  must  be  paid  for,  and 
that  the  smaller  quantities  one  buys,  the  more  he  pays 
in  proportion.  Clover  which  may  sell  for  six  to  ten 
dollars  a  ton  as  hay,  becomes  "  clover  meal,"  or  "  cut 
clover"  at  two  dollars  a  hundred.  The  disinfectant 
that  started  at  six  dollars  for  five  gallons,  becomes 
$  1 . 50  per  gallon,  and  50  cents  per  quart.  This  is  the  com- 
mon way  of  trade,  and  is  to  be  expected ;  but  it  is 
wisdom  on  the  part  of  those  who  must  make  money 
from  their  poultry,  to  do  a  bit  of  figuring  on  these 
things;  because,  the  price  of  the  disinfectant,  above,  is, 
proportionately,  above  60  per  cent  more  in  the  smallest 
lot  named  than  in  the  largest.  With  few  fowls,  it  is  not 
wise  to  buy  in  the  large  quantities ;  but  there  are  prepa- 
rations equally  good  that  can  usually  be  made  at  home 
at  very  small  cost,  provided  that  one's  time  be  not  too 
valuable. 

The  diseases  commonest  among  domestic  birds  are 
those  affecting  the  liver,  the  bowels,  the  head  and  throat, 
and  the  egg  organs.  Among  these,  all  but  those  of  the 


126  THE  BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 

head  and  throat  may  be  induced  by  wrong  feeding ;  and 
even  the  last  may  be  brought  on  by  wrong  handling. 
The  liver,  the  bowels,  and  the  egg  organs  are,  however, 
subject  to  diseases  which  may  pass  from  fowl  to  fowl  in 
the  flocks.  Dr.  Salmon  has  stated  his  belief  that  even 
inflammation  of  the  oviduct,  resulting  in  clusters  of  eggs 
looking  as  if  cooked,  and  ruining  the  bird  showing  the 
difficulty,  is  contagious,  or  may  be  so. 

This  brings  us  to  the  consideration  of  disinfectants. 
More  and  more,  everywhere,  the  medical  profession  is 
leaning  on  disinfectant  treatment,  —  just  careful  cleans- 
ing, while  natural  forces  repair  the  difficulty,  whatever 
it  may  be.  Most  of  the  disinfectants  in  use  in  poultry 
yards  at  the  present  time  are  closely  related  to  one  an- 
other. The  intestinal  disinfectants  recommended  by 
Dr.  Salmon  are  naphthol,  benzonapthol,  betol,  and  salicy- 
late  of  bismuth,  the  dose  of  each  being  named  as  one 
half  to  one  grain  for  a  full-grown  fowl.  Speaking  of 
"  blackhead "  in  turkeys,  which,  though  beginning  in 
the  blind  sacs  and  affecting  the  liver,  may  yet  rank  as 
an  intestinal  disease,  he  urges  that  all  the  turkeys  on 
the  place  should  be  killed,  disinfection  in  general  being 
confined  to  the  runs  and  ranges.  But  he  says  that  if 
internal  disinfection  is  attempted,  hyposulphite  of  sodium 
may  be  useful  in  doses  of  two  to  four  grains,  or  betol  in 
one-grain  doses.  Or,  sulphur,  ten  grains ;  sulphate  of 
iron,  one  grain;  sulphate  of  quinine,  one  grain.  This 
last  is1  very  often  a  friend  to  the  poultryman,  especially 
in  cases  of  cold  and  roup. 

There  is  a  list  of  nearly  forty  species  of  worms  infest- 
ing poultry.  Dr.  Salmon  calls  turpentine  an  excellent 
remedy  for  "  all  worms  which  inhabit  the  digestive  canal  " 


MEDICINES,   DISINFECTANTS,  AND   INSECTICIDES        127 

of  domestic  fowls.  It  may  first  be  tried,  one  half  diluted 
with  olive  oil.  If  failing  in  its  object  when  thus  ad- 
ministered, it  may  be  given  pure.  The  dose  of  turpentine 
is  from  one  to  three  teaspoonfuls.  Fortunately,  worms 
in  fowls  are  not  very  common,  although  most  poultry- 
men  have  them  to  contend  with  at  some  time,  if  they 
keep  fowls  through  many  years,  .and  especially  if  many 
are  brought  in  from  outside.  One  who  buys  eggs  is  a 
little  safer  from  such  troubles.  If  worms  appear,  the 
safest  and  quickest  treatment  is  to  destroy  all  affected 
fowls,  and  to  disinfect  the  runs  thoroughly. 

It  is,  as  a  rule,  useless  to  treat  any  difficulty  with  the 
egg  organs,  unless  it  may  be  those  which  come  from 
abnormal  laying,  or  from  the  attentions  of  the  male. 
External  swellings  at  the  vent,  mild  discharges,  and  pro- 
trusions may  be  treated  with  disinfectant  oils.  Any  of 
the  tar  products  are  good,  or  the  petroleum  residues. 
When  I  chance  to  have  zenoleum  on  hand,  I  use  that, 
and  find  it  very  good.  Any  of  this  class,  related  to  car- 
bolic acid,  or  phenol,  is  likely  to  be  good  and  effective, 
wherever  a  disinfectant  is  needed.  Internally,  or  on 
raw  surfaces,  they  must  be  well  diluted,  as  noted  above. 
A  further  word  on  these  will  come  in  when  we  consider 
insecticides. 

In  treating  diseases  of  the  head  and  throat,  the  story 
of  disinfectant  treatment  is  repeated  once  more.  The 
liquid  roup  cures  and  the  washes  that  are  used  are  com- 
monly muriatic  tincture  of  iron,  permanganate  of  potash, 
or  dissolved  copper  sulphate  or  peroxide  of  hydrogen. 
The  last  two  excoriate  harshly,  and  the  fowls  struggle 
and  suffer  much.  Dilute  peroxide  —  to  one  half — is 
better.  I  have  found  tincture  of  iron  most  satisfactory, 


128  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

painting  it  on  the  cankers,  if  the  disease  has  reached  this 
stage.  If  not,  I  use  one  or  two  grains  of  quinine  to  a 
fowl,  or  aconite  and  spongia  in  the  drinking  water.  A 
dozen  homeopathic  pellets  of  aconite  to  a  quart  of  drink- 
ing water,  given  early  in  the  attack,  may  ward  it  off  very 
promptly. 

Good  poultrymen  everywhere  rely  less  and  less  on 
medicines,  but  more  and  more  on  prevention  and  disin- 
fectants. The  chief  means  of  prevention  for  this  last 
class  of  diseases  has  been  the  open-front  poultry  house. 
In  such  houses,  diseases  of  the  breathing  organs  are  not 
common.  Sunshine  and  fresh  air,  here,  as  everywhere, 
are  Nature's  best  simples. 

Disinfectants  to  be  used  to  ward  off  vermin  may  be 
considered  a  necessity  to'  every  poultryman.  He  who  is 
most  cleanly  and  who  uses  the  most  dry  earth,  kainit, 
etc.,  on  the  droppings  boards,  will  need  the  least  insecti- 
cides. Time,  money,  and  work  in  incredible  proportion 
wiir  be  saved  by  using  these  aids  as  preventives.  It  is 
rather  easy,  by  spraying  roosts  once  a  month  in  hot 
weather,  and  once  in  two  months,  possibly,  in  the  colder 
months,  to  keep  the  houses  entirely  free  from  the  red 
mite  (which  is  gray  or  brownish  when  not  gorged  with 
blood),  one  great  foe  to  successful  poultry  raising.  If 
lice  paint  be  used  for  this  spray,  the  larger  lice  which 
infest  the  fowls  under  the  feathers  will  also  be  destroyed, 
as  the  fumes  oi  these  sprays  are  fatal  to  the  vermin. 

A  paint,  or  spraying  material,  of  this  sort,  much  used, 
is  made  by  dissolving  a  pound  of  naphthalene  flakes  in 
one  gallon  of  kerosene.  After  it  stands  a  day  or  so,  with 
occasional  shaking,  it  will  probably  be  in  good  condition 
to  use.  Fowls,  and  even  chicks,  may  be  treated  by 


MEDICINES,   DISINFECTANTS,   AND   INSECTICIDES         129 

painting  a  box  on  the  inside,  and  placing  them  in  the 
box,  with  a  burlap  bag  thrown  over  all.  But  close  at- 
tention is  necessary,  to  see  when  they  have  had  enough. 
A  prominent  turkey  raiser  treats  the  mother  turkeys 
after  this  manner  when  taking  them  from  the  nest,  be- 
fore she  allows  them  to  be  cooped  with  their  broods. 


The  Best-Medicine  Chest :  Nature's  Own  Disease  Preventives  and  Cheap  Dis- 
infectants, Sunshine,  Air,  Earth 

Twenty  minutes  of  this  insures  that  the  lice  on  the 
mother  shall  not,  later,  pass  to  the  younger,  choicer 
hosts,  the  tender  poults. 

A  large  handler  of  poultry  supplies  in  this  country 
puts  himself  on  public  record  as  believing  white  diarrhoea 
to  be  "  an  incubator  disease."  By  this,  he  means  that 
it  is  due  almost  wholly  to  incorrect  conditions  surround- 


130  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

ing  the  eggs  while  under  incubation.  As  the  members  of 
this  firm  have  handled  incubators  and  incubator  chicks 
during  many  years,  and  have  given  their  utmost  study 
to  the  conditions  belonging  to  artificial  hatching,  one 
may  not  carelessly  deny  their  conclusions.  These  people 
say,  cleverly,  that  a  pullet  represents  the  combination 
of  a  small  chicken,  a  large  quantity  of  feed,  and  a  few 
other  conditions.  They  are  willing  to  go  on  record  as 
saying  also  that  bowel  trouble  with  incubator  chicks  is 
unknown  "  unless  heat  goes  wrong  in  brooders  !"  Lin- 
ing this  up  with  the  statement  about  an  incubator  disease, 
we  begin  to  feel  that  both  incubators  and  brooders  will 
"  bear  watching,"  even  after  we  have  used  our  best  judg- 
ment in  selecting  the  right  make  of  machines. 

Some  one  says  that  the  poultryman  who  would  fight 
vermin  successfully  must  be  like  the  lice  themselves, 
"  always  at  it "  ;  which  is  by  no  means  a  bad  way  to 
bring  to  our  minds  the  fact  that  this  is  a  war  in-which 
there  is  "no  discharge."  However,  with  systematic  use 
of  the  disinfectant  "  paints  "  and  careful  whitewashing 
of  inner  walls,  one  may  come  out  victor,  and  not  work 
half  so  hard  as  he  must  needs  if  he  neglect  things  till 
the  legion  foe  get  the  start  of  him. 


XII 

METHODS   OF    CIRCUMVENTING   VERMIN 

Protecting  One's  Enthusiasms  —  A  Poultryman's  "In- 
spiration "  —  Roving  Vermin  —  Rats  —  Items  to  be 
Noted  —  Before  —  Or  After?  — Man's  Age-old  En- 
emy —  Rat  Harbors  Mean  War  on  the  Chicken  Yard  — 
Government  Bulletin  on  Rats  —  A  Plague  of  Mice  — 
Mice  and  the  Poultry  Keeper 

IN  the  winter  of  1910-1911  I  wrote  to  an  egg  customer 
of  the  previous  season,  who  had  bought  24  eggs  for  hatch- 
ing, to  see  if  I  could  buy  any  of  his  ducks  from  these 
eggs.  His  reply  was,  "  None  to  spare ;  owls,  rats, 
polecats,  and  minks  left  me  but  three."  I  knew,  too, 
one  family  of  Beginners  in  poultry  raising  who  spent 
nearly  two  years  in  repeated  efforts  to  make  the  poultry 
houses  on  their  newly  bought  place  rat-proof.  A  woman 
poultry  raiser  wrote  me  the  details  of  a  fierce  fight 
against  mites  "  in  piles,"  which  had  gained  a  hold  before 
being  discovered.  She  reported  a  victory  in  sight'  at 
last,  but  added,  "  I  shall  never  again  have  the  same 
enthusiasm  for  poultry  raising." 

Enthusiasm  is  a  compelling  factor  in  any  business 
that  is  to  be  successful.  Therefore,  it  is  the  part  of 
wisdom  to  protect  one's  enthusiasms  from  needless 
chilling.  The  most  abject  failures  follow  the  loss  of 
that  kindling  enthusiasm  which  leads  to  good  work. 
Thus,  it  is  only  good  sense  to  guard  against  anything 
that  may  lessen  enthusiasm,  even  though  your  practical 
man  will  sneer  at  enthusiasms  as  illusory. 


132  THE  BEGINNER  IN   POULTRY 


Apple  Tree.     Bark  Showing  Much  Injury  from  Meadow  Mice 


METHODS  OF   CIRCUMVENTING  VERMIN          133 

In  order  to  be  an  enthusiastic  poultry  raiser  beyond 
the  beginning,  then,  it  will  be  necessary  for  you  to  keep 
your  poultry  houses  and  coops  clean,  lest  you  entail 
disease;  sprayed  against  the  small  vermin  such  as  lice 
and  mites;  close-netted  against  roaming  vermin — 
weasels,  minks,  cat's,  and  even  the  neighbor's  pet  dog. 

If  you  station  the  coops  near  a  hummocky  swale, 
there  is  danger  of  minks,  etc. ;  if  too  near  a  forest,  owls 
and  hawks  and  crows  will  demand,  and  will  take,  a  toll; 
if  near  a  highway,  vehicles  and  dogs  must  have  their 
chance  at  your  pets  and  your  profits ;  if  too  near  infested 
barns  or  rubbish-heaps,  rats  will  eat  and  foul  and  waste 
the  feed  if  it  be  openly  free  and  plentiful,  or  devour  your 
eggs  and  chicks  if  the  grains  are  safe  in  tin-lined  bins. 
'Possums  will  have  a  try  at  your  dainties  in  the  way  of 
eggs,  etc.,  even  if  they  have  to  enter  the  houses  to  get 
them.  Polecats  know  the  juiciness  of  young  chicken 
meat,  and  the  fox  and  "  the  little  rid  hin  "  have  always 
been  at  polite  loggerheads. 

Fortunately,  few  are  likely  to  have  to  contend  with 
all  these  trials ;  still  more  fortunately,  none  need  be 
subject  to  their  depredation,  if  he  work  his  wits  hard 
enough  in  advance.  I  don't  know  who  it  was  that  said, 
"  Inspiration  is  perspiration,"  but  inspiration  and  most 
other  things  are  perspiration  to  the  commercial  poultry 
raiser!  Even  fretting  will  induce  perspiration,  at  times. 

Early  in  the  year  1910,  a  city  woman  established 
herself  in  the  country,  just  between  the  places  of  two 
old  hands  at  poultry  raising,  as  it  chanced.  She  was 
full  of  original  ideas.  She  lectured  by  the  hour  on  the 
true  methods  of  making  money  with  poultry  (original 
ways,  of  course)  and  generously  instructed  the  two  hard- 


METHODS  OF   CIRCUMVENTING   VERMIN          135 

headed  ones  on  either  side.  She  told  how  to  handle 
incubators,  brooders,  laying  hens ;  discoursed  on  the 
painful  sickness  of  the  sitting  hen,  —  wrapped  in  such  a 
high  fever,  —  and  radiated  wisdom  in  general.  Fate 
was  most  unkind  to  her,  after  all  this  generosity,  and, 
during  this  particular  season,  all  her  enterprises  were 
hounded  by  "  ill  luck."  Just  as  the  early  chicks  were 
getting  a  fine  start,  a  trio  of  neighborly  cats,  jealous, 
possibly,  for  the  laurels  of  the  neighborhood,  attacked  a 
brooder  run  in  the  daytime  and  took,  at  one  clip,  fifty 
of  Miladi's  up-to-date  youngsters!  After  the  Arabian 
was  purloined,  they  locked  the  door  to  his  apartments ; 
this  tells  the  whole  story  of  loss  by  vermin.  Which 
is  better,  poultry  keepers  all,  to  pay  out  good,  hard 
moneys  for  concrete  and  lumber  and  wire  netting  to 
make  things  shipshape  and  safe  ;  or  to  pay  out  25,  50, 
or  100  chicks  "on  account"  (of  experience)  and  then  go 
and  buy  the  lumber,  etc.  ? 

TABLE  OF  ITEMS  FROM  EXPERIENCE 

Item  I.    Look  out  for  the  Family  Cat ! 

Item  II.    Look  out  for  Rats  and  Rubbish  Piles ! 

Item  III.    Look  out  for  Fox  Terriers,  which  are  "Fly 
By-Nights  !  " 

Item  IV.    Look  out  for  Crows,  Hawks,  and  all  the 
Woods  Haunters  ! 

Item  V.    Look  out  for  Minks,  Weasels,  Water  Rats, 
and  all  the  Water  Vermin. 

Item  VI.    Look  out  for  Mites    and  Bedbugs  and  all 
House  and  Roost  and  Nest  Vermin  ! 

Item  VII.    Look  out  for  Head  Lice  and  Vent  Lice 
and   Wing    Lice  and    Thigh    Lice  and    Feather-eating 


136  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

Lice  and  all  the  Body  Vermin,  including  Fleas,  Chigoes 
("  jiggers  "),  and  What  Not,  especially  the  "  What  Not," 
because  that  includes  all  that  we  are  not  usually  look- 
ing out  for ! 

"Before"?  or  "After"?  Friend,  which  is  it  to  be? 
"Before"  means  coops  full  of  thrifty  chicks,  "luck" 
galore,  and  enthusiasm  unbounded  as  to  the  future  of 
poultry. 

"  After "  means  small  bunches  of  ailing  chicks,  dis- 
couragement, losses  inexplicable  of  chicks  and  fowls, 
losses  of  enthusiasm  and  a  pessimistic  outlook  on  the 
future  of  poultry  (with  a  very  small/). 

You  who  read  —  do  you  think  you  are  clever  ?  Do 
you  believe  in  yourself  as  a  good  business  man  —  or 
woman  ?  Do  you  think  it  reasonable  to  believe  that 
the  "  billion-dollar  "  poultry  industry  of  this  country  is 
carried  on  at  a  loss  ?  Is  it  safe  to  wager  that  you  can 
come  out  even  with  the  average  of  your  more  than  five 
million  competitors,  in  a  fair  field  and  with  no  favor  ? 
So? 

Well,  then,  what  about  the  rat  ?  An  article  in  one 
of  the  great  magazines  during  1910,  entitled  "  Our  Duel 
with  the  Rat,"  made  the  statement  that  the  rat  was  the 
only  living  thing  against  which  men  had  made  no  per- 
ceptible headway,  and  more  than  hinted  that  it  is  to  be 
a  duel  between  man  and  the  rat  for  the  possession  of 
the  world. 

I  have  seen  a  more  recent  statement  that  the  family 
cat  destroys  more  chickens  than  ALL  other  enemies  taken 
together !  Many  of  us  may  doubt  this.  But,  as  to  the 
rat  ?  Which  is  the  worse,  both  being  so  guiltily  guilty  ? 

An  exultant  letter  received  from  a  farm  on  the  day 


METHODS  OF   CIRCUMVENTING   VERMIN          137 


GREAT  H08NEO  OWL. 


This  Species  Is  Infrequent  and  Does  Little  Damage.     As  Shown  Is  about  One 
Eighth  Natural  Size 


138  THE   BEGINNER  IN   POULTRY 

of  this  writing,  says :  "  One  of  our  cats  is  the  greatest 
ratter  we  ever  saw."  Were  she  yours,  would  you  keep 
her,  as  being  the  lesser  of  two  evils?  I  have  known  one 
cat,  with  five  kits  to  feed,  to  kill  $75  worth  of  fine  poul- 
try in  a  single  season. 

This,  as  other  questions,  narrows  finally  to  man's  un- 
derstanding of  the  animals  under  his  care.  For,  if  he 
understands  their  nature  and  habits  of  "  mind,"  he  can 
usually  bend  them  to  his  will.  A  good  mouser  and  rat- 
ter is  not  so  likely  to  need  to  catch  birds,  but  it  may  be 
that  the  hunting  instinct  is  strong.  Nevertheless,  a 
hunting  kitten  can  be  taught  that  the  chickens  are  under 
the  protection  of  her  master,  just  as  she,  herself,  is.  A 
few  sharp  scoldings,  or  a  drubbing,  if  need  be,  will  grave 
this  lesson  on  her  consciousness.  Then,  with  proper 
care,  she  will  be  all  right.  But  if  you  feed  her  chicken 
heads  and  waste,  how  can  you  wonder,  and  why  should 
you  —  how  dare  you  —  complain  if  she  goes  farther  and 
takes  the  bodies  also  ?  If  you  allow  your  hens  to  lay 
soft-shelled  eggs  which  break  easily,  how  dare  you  blame 
them  for  becoming  egg  eaters  ?  Look  to  yourself,  dear 
Sir  —  or  Madam.  Is  not  your  judgment  given  you  for 
the  very  purpose  of  helping  you  to  avoid  such  obvious 
errors,  and  to  fix  your  dominion  over  the  lower  animals  ? 

The  rat,  however,  is  in  a  class  by  himself.  He  is  an 
enemy  to  man  from  the  ages.  And,  now  that  we  know 
that  he  carries  and  distributes  the  dreaded  bubonic  plague 
throughout  the  world  (even  crossing  the  ocean  with  it, 
as  a  stowaway),  and  has  passed  it  on  to  the  squirrels  in 
some  places,  we  need  to  impress  it  fully  on  our  minds 
that  he  is  an  enemy  to  be  feared  and  fought  to  the  finish. 
The  extreme  suspicion  and  the  intelligence  of  the  rat 


METHODS  OF  CIRCUMVENTING  VERMIN  139 

make  him  difficult  to  deal  with,  but  he  has  a  weakness : 
more  than  aught  else  he  seems  to  fear  the  place  where 
rats  die,  or  disappear,  or  where  things  are  torn  up  and 
topsy-turveyed.  He  can  be  fought  on  this  basis. 

He  can  be  fought  on  the  basis  of  prevention,  and  the 
cities  are  being  called  upon  to  unite  in  such  warfare. 
We  need  to  deal  with  him  always  on  suspicion,  even  as 
he  deals  with  us.  We  need  to  clear  up  every  harbor  of 
boards  or  rubbish  heaps  or  tumble-down  buildings.  The 
rat  must  hide  ;  this  is  our  cue.  We  need  concrete  floors 
and  foundations  which  he  cannot  penetrate.  We  need 
to  fight  him  in  advance,  everywhere  and  always. 

The  necessity  for  extermination  of  the  rat  has  recently 
become  so  grave  that  the  United  States  government  has 
placed  its  immense  prestige  behind  the  movement.  Sev- 
eral countries  have  made  efforts  along  this  line,  but 
without  wholly  satisfactory  results.  It  is  evident  that 
international  cooperation  will  be  necessary  to  handle 
this  small  but  shrewd  and  vicious  enemy  to  mankind. 
One  of  the  first  undertakings  urged  is  the  "  rat-proof- 
ing "  of  all  buildings  within  city  limits.  It  is  to  the  sea- 
ports and  cities,  largely,  that  the  outlying  towns  and  the 
country  places  owe  the  plague  of  rats.  Yet  the  cities 
alone  cannot  now  deal  thoroughly  with  it.  If  the  cities 
kill,  as  San  Francisco,  in  her  extremity,  did,  the  country 
is  saved.  But  if  the  cities  drive  out,  without  killing, 
the  country  places  must  suffer  from  this  action.  It  is 
evident  that  every  individual  must  add  his  effort  at  ex- 
termination. The  rat-proofing  of  granaries  has  long 
been  a  necessity  for  the  farm ;  not  so,  apparently,  the 
rat  proofing  of  grain  barrels  and  bins.  These  should 
not  be  neglected.  The  hopper  feeding  of  poultry,  so 


140  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

popular  of  late,  works  in  the  direction  of  helping  the 
rat,  unless  the  rat-proof  hoppers  are  provided.  Sheet 
metals,  or  papers  made  poisonous  or  repellent  may  be 
used.  In  feed  alone,  the  rat  causes  world  losses  of  mil- 
lions of  dollars  in  value.  In  old-world  cities  it  has 
caused  the  loss  of  many  thousands  of  lives.  And  in 
our  own  western  borders,  many  thousands  of  dollars 
were  spent  to  free  us  from  the  plague  which  had  found 
an  entrance,  and  was  being  distributed  by  these  vermin 
throughout  all  the  burrows  and  cellars  and  refuse  piles 
in  the  great  coast  city.  When  it  had  come  to  a  choice 
between  the  wholesale  destruction  of  either  the  people 
or  the  rats,  the  most  expert  plague  authorities  in  the 
country  took  the  matter  in  hand. 

Perhaps  the  keenest  interest,  just  now,  lies  in  the 
bacterial  preparations  being  widely  advertised.  In 
1909  the  government  put  itself  on  record  as  having 
found  these  not  sufficiently  effective.  That  is,  "when 
fresh  and  virulent,"  they  will  kill  most  of  the  rats  which 
really  eat  the  baits ;  but  the  infection  passed  on  to 
others  is  on  too  small  a  scale  to  be  considered  a  reliable 
means  of  rat  extinction. 

The  two  chief  points  made  by  the  government 
authorities,  with  reference  to  keeping  down  the  plague 
of  rats,  are  the  necessity  of  denying  them  harborage 
and  the  equal  necessity  of  destroying  their  food.  In 
the  cities,  garbage,  and  especially  kitchen  refuse,  is 
said  to  be  the  chief  source  of  food  supply.  In  the 
country,  particularly  on  poultry  farms,  it  is  the  feed 
bags  and  barrels  and  hoppers  left  ready  to  their  taking 
of  the  contents.  Even  without  these,  there  would 
remain  the  unhoused  grain  and  the  insecure  chickens. 


METHODS   OF   CIRCUMVENTING  VERMIN          141 


SHASP-SMJNNED  HAWK— THE  ENEMY  OF  SMALL  BIRDS  *ND  CHICKENS. 

[Upper  fiKutp,  immature  female;  lower  figure,  adull  mule. 


Our  Biological  Survey  Believes  in  the  Economic  Value  of  most  Predaceous 
Birds,  But  This  One  Needs  to  Be  Kept  in  Check.  Birds  form  its  Chief  Food. 
One  Fourth  Natural  Size 


142  THE   BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 

And,  if  the  ground  squirrels  take  (as  affirmed)  a 
$10,000,000  annual  toll  from  the  farmers,  who  can 
estimate  farm  losses  from  the  ever-present  rats  ? 

As  respects  the  poultry  keeper,  it  is  not  going  beyond 
the  limit  to  say  that  the  presence  or  the  absence  of  rats 
may  alone  decide  whether  he  make  a  profit,  or  suffer  a 
loss  through  his  venture.  Margins  everywhere  are 
small,  and  losses  from  depredations  of  various  sorts, 
infinite  in  number,  though  each  one  may  be  a  bagatelle. 
I  cannot  be  too  insistent  that  the  Beginner  train  him- 
self, from  the  earliest  minute,  not  to  permit  rat  harbors, 
and  not  to  leave  the  feed  so  that  these  vermin  can  main- 
tain themselves  at  his  expense,  later  to  steal  and  kill  — 
perhaps  worse  —  also  at  his  expense.  Cornell  Station 
has  a  pattern  of  a  rat-proof  hopper  for  feeding  small 
grains  or  dry  mash,  and  I  think  supply  houses  carry  a 
somewhat  similar  one  for  sale. 

A  United  States  Bulletin  can  be  had,  covering  all  the 
points  on  which  information  is  usually  desired.  In  locali- 
ties where  rats  or  squirrels  have  become  a  scourge,  the 
Biological  Survey  will,  whenever  possible,  send  a  skilled 
assistant  to  demonstrate  the  most  reliable  ways  of  rid- 
ding the  land  of  these  pests.  Poisoning  with  barley 
and  strychnine  is  one  of  the  modern,  most  approved, 
methods  of  destroying  rodents. 

There  are  two  points  in  connection  with  field  mice 
that  may  make  it  imperative  for  growers  of  birds  to 
study  and  to  fight  these  also,  insignificant  although 
most  people  may  regard  them  as  being.  Plagues  of 
lice,  grasshoppers,  ants,  and  mice  have  abundantly  es- 
tablished the  fact  that  nothing  is  too  small  to  become  a 
menace  to  man,  if  its  aggregate  numbers  increase  suffi- 


METHODS  OF  CIRCUMVENTING  VERMIN  143 

ciently  at  any  one  point.     And  plagues  of  mice  have  long 
been  known  in  the  older  countries. 

The  two  points  to  which  I  wish  to  call  attention  are 
the  fouling  of  grain  feeds  for  pigeons,  by  the  excreta  of 
mice,  making  the  food  actually  poisonous,  and  the  fact 


Alfalfa  Field  Ruined  by  Field  Mice  (Department  of  Agriculture  Year  Book) 

that  scourges  of  field  mice,  counted  "  among  the  oldest 
and  most  disastrous  known  in  history,"  destroy  vegeta- 
tion almost  completely.  "  Pasturage,  hay,  alfalfa,  clover, 
grain, — whether  growing  or  stacked, — vineyards,  shrub- 
bery, and  even  forest  trees  have  been  destroyed." 
This  hits  the  poultryman  at  a  vital  point,  especially 
in  the  alfalfa  country.  During  1908,  according  to  the 
United  States  government  Report,  a  species  of  mice 


144 


THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


infested  the  alfalfa  fields  to  such  an  extent,  in  a  portion 
of  the  state  of  Nevada,  that  15,000  acres  out  of  20,000 
were  a  total  loss.  The  government  was  obliged  to  take 


The  Destructive  "  Carson  Meadow  Mouse,"  a  Plague  of  which  in  1907-8  Ruined 
Alfalfa  and  Potatoes,  severely  Injured  Beets,  Carrots,  and  Fruit  Trees. 
Poultry  Depends  on  all  of  These 

a  hand  in  the  destruction  of  the  field  mice,  reported  as 
reachirig  "the  astonishing  total  of  12,000  to  the  acre." 
The  farmers  found  out  their  debt  to  some  other 
friends  at  this  time :  hawks  and  owls,  gulls,  herons, 
ravens,  skunks,  badgers,  weasels,  foxes,  and  coyotes 


METHODS   OF   CIRCUMVENTING  VERMIN  145 

assembling  in  the  valley  and  killing  "  at  least  45,000 
mice  a  day."  The  Survey  came  to  the  rescue  in  this 
plague  experience.  The  Department  Report  for  1908, 
which  tells  the  story,  declares :  "  Poisoning  is  the  most 
generally  applicable,  cheapest,  and  most  certain  means 
for  controlling  mouse  plagues  at  present  known."  It 
also  recites  the  various  methods  of  combating  the 
plague,  poisoned  green  alfalfa  placed  in  the  runs  and 
burrows  being  "  fatal  to  practically  all  the  mice,  in  the 
areas  treated."  As  field  mice  produce,  annually,  from 
two  to  six  litters,  which  may  average  six,  running  oc- 
casionally to  a  dozen  or  more,  the  early  young  breeding, 
probably,  the  same  year,  the  danger  of  overmultiplica- 
tion  is  always  near.  The  United  States  government 
has  consistently  favored  holding  Nature's  balances,  as 
far  as  may  be,  arguing  that  the  few  chickens  which 
roving  vermin  may  kill  are  nothing  as  against  the  losses 
that  may  follow  the  persistent  destruction  of  the  pre- 
daceous  birds  and  mammals,  whose  chief  food  is  worse 
enemies  of  man.  Concerning  large  enemies  of  mice  in 
the  incident  reported,  the  report  says  that  probably  3000 
of  these  appeared  in  the  valley  during  the  mice  plague, 
and  adds  :  "  It  may  be  assumed  that  these  3000  natural 
enemies  would  each  destroy  an  average  of  15  mice  a 
day,  or  450  a  month,  or  collectively  would  kill  45,000 
mice  a  day,  or  1,350,000  per  month.  This  number,  vast 
as  it  is,  is  far  too  small  to  put  an  end  to  a  well-established 
plague,  although  more  than  ample  to  check  a  plague 
during  its  early  stages,  or  to  completely  wipe  it  out 
after  the  numbers  have  been  materially  reduced  by 
poisons  or  other  agencies." 

What  is  known  as  "  the  plague  mouse  "  almost  always 
L 


146  THE   BEGINNER   IN   POULTRY 

belongs  to  a  genus  known  as  Microtus,  of  which  fifty 
species  inhabit  the  United  States,  and  some  one  of  these 
may  be  found  in  practically  every  part  of  our  land. 
Their  estimated  annual  damage  is  $3,000,000.  But  the 
indirect  damage  of  mice  plagues,  as  affecting  poultry 
raising,  etc.,  through  the  feed  might  be  impossible  of 
computation.  Most  of  these  mice  are  short  and  chunky, 
with  short,  round  tails,  short  ears,  rather  small  eyes,  and 
short  legs.  The  cut  of  the  Carson  meadow  mouse  (the 
one  fought  in  Nevada)  well  shows  their  characteristics. 


XIII 
TYPES  OF   MODERN    HOUSING 

A  Common  Type  — The  Preferred  Lumber — Lengthening 
the  Life  of  Materials  — A  West  Virginia  Experiment 
Station  House —A  Deep,  Shed  House,  Colony  Type —A 
Broad  Construction  Principle  —  Shelters  for  Hot  and 
Cold  Climates  —  Layers  in  Weaning  Coops 

IT  is  deemed  far  from  desirable  to  give  a  long  disser- 
tation on  building  and  many  plans,  when  there  are  several 
hand  books  at  twenty-five  and  fifty  cents  each,  and  bulletins 
from  the  states  interested  in  poultry,  treating  this  subject 
at  more  or  less  length,  and  in  full  detail.  Two  or  three 
plans  which  have  been  used,  and  which  show  modern 
tendencies  in  poultry  housing,  will  be  all  that  any  poul- 
tryman  will  need. 

A  very  common  and  satisfactory  type  of  house,  espe- 
cially in  New  England,  is  nothing  more  than  a  double, 
equal  pitch  shell,  ended  toward  the  south,  and  having 
this  south  end  open,  or  screened  with  wire  or  net,  inside 
of  which  is  a  curtain.  This  is  dropped  only  when  the 
owner  thinks*  it  necessary ;  the  less  the  better,  as  a 
rule.  This  curtain  may  be  on  nice,  shipshape  frames, 
hinged,  and  opening  inward  and  upward,  or  may  slide  to 
the  right  or  left  on  rings  and  wire,  or  it  may  roll  up  on 
a  light  pole  run  into  a  wide  hem  at  the  bottom,  as  the 
poultryman  pleases. 

The  dimensions,  10  feet  X  16  feet,  use  lumber  to 
good  advantage,  and  a  house  of  this  size  costs  less  in 
proportion  than  a  smaller  one.  If  built  permanently, 
this  is  a  good  size.  If  you  like  to  have  a  movable  house, 


148  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

built  on  skids,  to  be  used  as  a  colony  house  in  summer, 
the  units  drawn  together  in  groups  for  easy  care  in  win- 
ter, 8  feet  x  10  feet  is  more  desirable  to  handle,  as  it  will 
not  rack  so  much  with  moving,  and  is  not  so  heavy. 
This  size,  too,  cuts  well  without  waste. 

PORTABLE  HOUSE  IN  USE  AT  WISCONSIN  STATION  (See  Bulletin  No.  215) 

This  portable  chicken  house  is  designed  for  small  flocks  and  will  accom- 
modate ten  to  a  dozen  chickens.  This  is  6  X  8  feet,  boarded  horizontally. 
The  portable  house  is  covered  on  the  exterior  with  tar  paper,  which  is  put  on 
up  and  down,  all  joints  being  cemented.  Over  each  joint  and  also  between, 
nail  a  3X3  inch  strip  to  prevent  the  paper  from  working  in  the  wind.  The 
door  has  a  screen  wire  covering  for  daytime  and  a  hinged  cloth  screen 
to  cover  the  wire  screen  at  night.  The  roost  is  movable  and  is  placed  14 
inches  from  the  ceiling.  Four  skids  of  4x6  inch  material  running  lengthwise 
of  the  building  on  which  the  floor  rests,  make  a  ready  means  to  move  the 
house  from  one  place  to  another. 

BILL  OF  MATERIAL  FOR  THE  PORTABLE  HOUSE 

Hemlock  may  be  used  instead  of  pine,  if  kept  well  painted. 
Roof,  Sides,  and  Dropping  Board — 

250  board  feet  of  8-inch  shiplap,  No.  2  pine. 

Floor  — 

54  board  feet  of  6  inch  matched  fencing,  No.  2  pine. 
Cornice  Fascia,  Dropping  Board  Frame,  and  Window  Casings  — 
4  pieces  1x3  inch,  16  feet  long,  No.  2  pine. 

Rafters,  Studding,  Skids,  and  Girts  — 

7  pieces  2x4  inch,  12  feet  long,  No.  2  pine. 
4  pieces  2x4  inch,  10  feet  long,  No.  2  pine. 
2  pieces  2x4  inch,  16  feet  long,  No. 2  pine. 
1 1  pieces  3X3  inch,  12  feet  long,  No.  2  pine. 

Miscellaneous  — 

One  6-light  sash,  glass  8x  10  inches. 

One  double  roll  2  ply  tar  paper,  216  square  feet. 

Eight  square  feet  poultry  netting,  i-inch  mesh. 

Three  strap  hinges  4  inches  long. 

One  hasp  and  staples. 


TYPES   OF   MODERN  HOUSING  -149 

The  kind  of  lumber  used  must  depend  on  circum- 
stances. Hemlock  is  often  the  most  available  and  the 
cheapest.  If  dressed  on  one  side,  the  smooth  side 
should  be  laid  to  the  inside  of  the  house,  when  covering 
with  patent  roofing  outside.  Pine,  cypress,  locust,  pop- 
lar, all  come  into  play  in  different  parts  of  the  country, 
cheapness  and  lasting  quality  being  desired.  All  ex- 
posed shingles  or  underground  pieces  may  be  saturated 
with  one  of  the  coal  oil  products  before  using,  to  lengthen 
their  normal  life.  As  years  pass,  one  half  the  expense  and 
loss  may  be  saved  thus.  In  our  locality,  no  one  puts  any- 
thing but  chestnut  into  the  ground.  The  chestnut  blight 
will  doubtless  settle  that.  But,  in  my  opinion,  a  cheap 
post,  dipped,  is  equal  to  a  high-priced  one,  undipped. 

Because  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  poultry  work 
of  this  country  is  carried  on  upon  soil  which  is  distinctly 
unfavorable,  I  think  it  wise  to  speak  strongly  here. 
Dampness  is  a  fatal  fault  in  a  poultry  house.  But  when 
conditions  are  difficult  to  change,  men  put  up  houses 
on  damp  ground,  without  board  floors,  and  thus  base 
their  work  on  a  crucial  blunder.  Because  Professor 
Halpin  has  put  this  point  well  and  with  reasons,  the 
following  quotation  from  Bulletin  215,  Wisconsin  Sta- 
tion, is  given  here  :  "  A  damp  location  means  a  damp 
poultry  house  all  the  way  through,  and  the  result  is  that 
the  fowls  are  affected  with  many  troublesome  diseases. 
Damp  ground  that  is  likely  to  remain  muddy  around 
the  house  is  not  satisfactory,  because  the  hens'  feet  be- 
come soiled  and,  as  a  consequence,  the  eggs  and  nests 
become  dirty,  and  dirty  eggs  are  unattractive  on  the 
market.  If  cleaned,  a  large  amount  of  labor  is  neces- 
sary, and  with  the  best  of  care,  cleaned  eggs  never  look 


150  THE  BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 

so  well  as  eggs  that  have  never  been  soiled.  When 
hens  run  at  large  on  wet  ground,  the  litter  on  the  floor 
of  the  house  soon  becomes  dirty  and  wet,  thus  making 
a  very  unsatisfactory  place  for  feeding.  The  ground  out 
of  doors  is  also  unsatisfactory  for  feeding,  as  wet  ground 
soon  becomes  filthy  and  the  filth  sticks  to  the  feed, 
making  it  impossible  for  the  hens  to  pick  it  up  without 
consuming  more  or  less  filth.  Ground  which  is  natu- 
rally wet  is  cold  in  the  spring.  It  is  also  slower  to  be- 
come aerated,  and  holds  filth  on  the  surface  much  longer 
than  dry  ground." 

Many  of  the  Experiment  Stations  favor  the  portable 
house,  especially  for  growing  stock.  Virtually,  the 
portable  colony  house  is  the  same  as  if  one  built  a 
poultry  house  on  the  old  type  of  long  farm  sled  as  a 
foundation  and  floor.  Sometimes  the  "  runners  "  are 
made  of  two  pieces  each.  A  "  three-by-four "  might 
have  spiked  to  it  on  the  under  side,  a  three-by-three, 
or  a  three-by-two-inch  piece,  the  latter  to  be  replaced 
whenever  it  rots  or  grows  too  punky.  This  method 
adds  much  length  of  life  to  the  house.  Such  a  house 
needs  to  be  well  braced,  and  not  too  large,  as  the  large 
houses  would  be  racked  too  much  in  moving.  For  the 
farm,  it  appears  to  me  that  this  house  is  to  be  preferred 
to  all  others,  for  small  flocks.  It  need  not  even  be 
floored,  where  the  soil  is  dry  and  sandy,  or  where  it  is 
in  use  only  in  .the  dry  summer  seasons,  for  growing 
stock.  If  for  use  in  windy  situations,  or  in  winter,  it 
needs  some  method  of  closing  the  space  between  the 
runners,  at  the  rear.  I  think  a  drop  board  tightly  fitted, 
and  furnished  with  hooks  to  fasten  shut,  or  open,  as  de- 
sired, might  meet  this  need. 


152  THE   BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 

The  West  Virginia  Experiment  Station  was  one  of 
the  earliest  to  show  especial  interest  in  poultry.  For 
many  years,  Professor  Atwood  has  been  working  stead- 
ily at  poultry  puzzles.  I  think  he  was  the  first  to  insist 
that  eggs  should  be  weighed  at  intervals  during  incuba- 
tion, in  order  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  air  mois- 
ture were  sufficient.  Although  not  much  attention  was 
given  his  views  at  first,  the  general  trend  on  the  mois- 
ture question  is  bringing  the  people  who  study  these 
questions  in  the  direction  of  his  thought,  and  they  are 
discussing  it  with  more  appreciation  now  than  at  any 
previous  time.  The  West  Virginia  Station  has  put  out 
a  Bulletin  of  Poultry  Housing,  by  Professor  Atwood, 
which  consists  largely  of  the  description  of  an  open- 
front  laying  house,  which,  he  says,  is  well  adapted  to 
West  Virginia  conditions.  It  is  really  a  multiplication 
of  the  Tolman  unit ;  that  is,  several  Tolman  houses 
under  one  roof,  this  being  a  long  house,  while  the  origi- 
nal Tolman  house  is  a  colony,  —  or  detached  house. 
The  vital  characteristic  of  this  type  of  house  is  that, 
having  an  open  front,  and  discrediting  the  use  of  cur- 
tains, it  theoretically  banks  or  traps  the  heat  under  the 
ridge,  and  places  the  roosts  so  that  the  hens  get  the 
benefit  of  this  at  night.  This  is  attained  by  making 
the  roof  of  unequal  double  pitch,  the  front  portion  being 
much  the  longer,  and  thus  sloping  to  an  unusually  low 
front  plate.  To  offset  the  sunshine  lost  in  this  way, 
windows  are  commonly  placed  in  the  east  and  west 
walls. 

The  photographs  give  a  good  idea  of  this  "  Tolman 
Long  House  "  if  we  may  so  call  it ;  this  adapted  Tolman 
House.  The  front  is  of  wire  netting  only.  The  house 


TYPES  OF   MODERN  HOUSING  153 

is  unusually  deep  (24  feet),  and  its  64  feet  of  length  is 
divided  by  solid  partitions  into  four  sections,  16  feet 
each.  It  is  5  feet  in  height  at  the  front,  and  one  foot 
higher  at  the  rear,  the  peak  of  the  roof  being  one  third 
the  distance  from  the  back,  and  10^  feet  above  the 
floor.  The  ground,  in  this  case,  sloping  toward  the 
north,  a  scratching  room  is  provided  below  the  main 


Roost  Platform  and  Nests,  West   Virginia  Station.     Between  the  Nests  are 
Two  Platforms 

room,  reached  by  a  trap.  This  has  a  dirt  floor. 
The  nest  boxes,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  cut,  are 
placed  between  two  board  platforms,  with  a  hinge  door 
in  front  for  easy  access,  and  a  ladder  for  the  hens  to 
reach  the  nest  platform.  A  house  like  this  necessitates 
strict  watch  for  mites,  which  choose  the  neighborhood 
of  the  roosts  as  their  chief  haunt. 

For  ventilation  during  the  summer  heat,  two  doors 


TYPES  OF  MODERN   HOUSING  155 

are  placed  in  the  rear  wall  of  each  room,  under  the 
nesting  platform.  This  gives  free  sweep  for  air  across 
the  pen  below  the  hens,  at  night.  At  zero  temperatures, 
even  White  Leghorn  combs  do  not  freeze  in  this  house, 
the  front  being  constantly  open.  A  year's  use  has 
proved  the  house  satisfactory.  Being  built  by  contract, 
of  locust,  poplar,  and  hemlock,  with  yellow  pine  for 
roof  sheathing  and  flooring,  it  cost  $450,  and  gives  com- 
fortable quarters  to  400  Leghorns.  This  is  about  $1.12 
per  hen.  The  main  floor  gives  nearly  four  square  feet 
per  hen,  and  the  birds  have,  in  addition,  the  equal  floor 
space  below.  Poultry  men,  as  a  rule,  abominate  an  ar- 
rangement like  this,  which  has  not  head  room  for  an 
attendant,  but  it  gives  extra  space  without  much  extra 
cost. 

A  duplicate  of  the  Bill  of  Materials  is  given  below ; 
for  one  section  only  :  — 

BILL    OF    MATERIALS    FOR     MODEL    POULTRY    HOUSE.      ONE 
SECTION  ONLY,  24'  x  16' 

6  pcs.  posts,  6"  x  2'  6"  locust. 

3  pcs.  posts,  6"  x  3'  6"  locust. 

3  pcs.  posts,  6"  x  4'  6"  locust. 

ii  pcs.  joist,  2"  x  8"  —  1 6'  o"  long,  hemlock. 

ii  pcs.  joist,  2"  x  8"  —  8'  o"  long,  hemlock. 

9  pcs.  sills,  girders,  etc.,  2"  x  8"  —  16'  o"  long,  hemlock. 

14  pcs.  plates  and  joist  bearers,  2"  x  4" —  16'  o"  long,  hemlock. 

40  pcs.  studding,  etc.,  2"  x  4"  —  12'  o"  long,  hemlock. 

9  pcs.  rafters,  2"  x  6"  —  18'  o"  long,  hemlock. 

9  pcs.  rafters,  2"  x  4"  —  10'  o"  long  hemlock. 

50  ft.  b.  m.  patent  siding,  5"  face,  poplar. 

700  ft.  b.  m.  shiplap,  5"  face,  poplar. 

600  ft.  b.  m.  roof  sheathing,  4"  common  No.  2  y.  p.  flooring. 

350  ft.  b.  m.  double  surfaced  y.  p.  ceiling,  |"  x  4"  No.  2  com. 

600  ft.  b.  m.  flooring,  matched  y.  p.  3%"  face,  No.  2. 


156  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

75  ft.  b.  m.  ceiling,  f"  x  3"  matched  and  beaded,  y.  p.  No.  2. 
2  pcs.  1"  x  10"  —  16'  o"  long,  8-4-8,  poplar,  feed  trough. 
i  pc.  |  '  x  4"  —  16'  o"  long,  8-4-8,  poplar,  feed  trough. 
i  pc.  |"  x  7"  —  1 6'  o"  long,  8-4-8,  poplar,  nests. 

4  pcs.  |"  x  5"  —  10'  o"  long,  8-4-8,  poplar,  nests. 

1  pc.  I"  x  8"  —  12'  o"  long,  8-4-8,  poplar,  gangs. 

2  pcs.'l"  x  5" —  12'  o"  long,  8-4-8,  poplar,  gangs. 

i  door  frame,  2'  10"  x  6'  o"  —  ^"  x  if"  rebate  strip,  poplar. 
i  door  frame,  2'  8"  x  4'  o"  —  £"  x  if"  rebate  strip,  poplar. 

1  door  frame,  2'  n\"  x  6'  5"  —  fitted  with  i|"  x  i*"  hinge  strip  for 

double  acting  door,  poplar. 

2  doors,  2'  10"  x  6'  o"  —  ]  double  surfaced,  matched  and  beaded 

batten  doors  with  |"  x  4"  battens,  poplar. 

i   door,  2'  8"  x  4'  o"  —  |"  double  surfaced,  matched  and  beaded 
batten  door  with  |"  x  4"  battens,  poplar. 

1  mullion  window  frame,  2  single  sash,  6  It.  10"  x  12",  poplar. 

2  sash,  if" —  6  It.  10"  x  12",  glazed  8.  8.  A.  glass. 

5  squares  composition  tarred  felt  roofing,  2  ply,  first  quality. 
2  squares  tarred  building  felt,  2  ply. 

14  lin,  ft.  mesh  wire,  3"  sq.  mesh.  50"  wide,  No  20.  wire. 
14  lin,  ft.  mesh  wire,  3"  sq.  mesh.  32"  wide,  No.  20.  wire. 

One  may  build  a  simple,  shed  house,  deep  in  propor- 
tion to  width.  Such  a  house,  or  its  modifications  mounted 
on  skids,  will  fill  every  need  of  the  small  poultryman. 
If  the  roof  were  bent  down  in  front,  making  it  of  double 
pitch  with  lower  front,  much  cold  air  could  thus  be 
shut  out,  with  no  added  expense  for  materials,  and  only 
a  little  more  trouble  in  building.  If  bent  at  a  point  far 
enough  back,  one  would  get  the  Tolman  house  outline. 
Professor  Atwood  says  :  "  In  poultry  houses  having  a 
shed  roof,  the  warm  air  constantly  flows  away  from  the 
fowls  when  they  are  on  the  perches,  thus  making  the 
shed  roof  type  of  house  colder  for  the  fowls  at  night." 
I  think  this  is  a  point  which  poultrymen  have  very 
generally  overlooked,  in  their  zeal  to  get  every  ray  of 


TYPES  OF  MODERN   HOUSING  157 

sunlight  during  the  day.  I  believe  it  to  be  one  of  the 
key  points  in  getting  winter  eggs.  If,  however,  one 
have  a  shed  house,  snug  night  quarters  may  be  easily 
provided,  at  a  little  additional  cost,  by  laying  a  light 
platform  on  two  strong  horses,  and  setting  thereon  one 
of  the  three-by-six  feet  floored  weaning  coops  which 
can  be  had  of  any  supply  house,  or  which  can  be  made 
at  home,  if  desired.  These  form  ideal  sleeping  rooms 
for  small  pens  of  fowls,  and,  with  such  night  quarters, 
Leghorns  will  lay  well  even  if  running  in  a  cold  shed 
during  the  day.  This  I  know  from  experience.  In  fact, 
no  breed  that  I  have  tested  in  this  way  has  failed  to  give 
good  winter  returns,  even  in  January. 

The  combination  principle  that  must  govern  all  con- 
struction for  poultry  shelter  is :  comfort,  with  the  great- 
est amount  of  fresh  air  possible.  Although  there  is  not 
a  particle  of  doubt  that  some  could  make  more  money 
growing  pullets  to  sell  than  they  could  from  trying  to 
produce  winter  eggs,  the  fact  remains  that  the  larger 
possibilities  in  winter  eggs  dispose  most  people  to  try 
the  gamble  for  them.  This  is  what  it  really  is  for  many, 
during  December,  January,  and  February.  Given  good 
feed  in  sufficient  surplus  above  a  maintenance  ration  to 
produce  eggs,  the  rest  depends  on  the  comfort  of  the 
birds.  This  is  best  and  most  safely  attained  in  localities 
where  sharp  winds  may  be  expected,  by  making  all  walls 
but  the  front  absolutely  wind-proof,  and  leaving  the  front 
more  or  less  open.  Professor  Atwood  says  that  double- 
walling  at  the  back  furnishes  much-appreciated  harbors 
for  rats.  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  more  difference 
can  be  attained  by  locating  the  house  in  a  sheltered  spot 
than  from  giving  it  a  second  wall  when  lacking  the 


158  THE   BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 

shelter.  Professor  Atwood  is  the  first  whom  I  have 
known  to  recommend  a  shelter  or  windbreak  at  a  little 
distance  in  front  of  the  house.  It  would  certainly  have 
value,  and  I  think  a  board  shelter  of  this  sort  might  pay 
if  made  in  strong,  well-braced  panels,  to  be  set  up  for 
the  winter  season  only.  Cedars  make  a  windbreak  that 
hens  enjoy  to  the  full. 

Poultrymen  in  Minnesota  and  in  Maine  testify  that 
the  open-front  house  works  well  there  if  muslin-covered  ; 
by  some,  a  modified  open  front  is  preferred.  This  is 
chiefly  boarded,  but  with  openings  covered  by  muslin. 

In  localities  where  summer  heat  is  greatest,  I  would 
try  shelters  made  of  wire  on  a  frame  of  light  studding, 
boarded  only  on  one  side  —  that  of  the  worst  winds  - 
and  having  a  roof  projecting  six  inches  or  more  on  the 
sides  and  front. 

In  some  years,  I  have  taken  my  birds  from  the  long 
houses  and  placed  them  in  weaning  coops,  under  light 
shade  when  possible.  The  fowls  so  moved  never  failed 
to  give  better  results  in  eggs  than  those  remaining  in 
the  long,  too-warm  house.  They  not  only  laid  more 
eggs  all  summer,  but  they  gave  more  in  autumn. 

A  point  very  likely  to  be  slighted  by  the  Beginner 
who  is  constructing  permanently,  is  that  of  raising  the 
floors  and  making  sure  that  water  shall  drain  away  from 
the  building,  no  matter  what  the  location.  The  general 
rule  is  to  fill  in  with  dry  earth  to  the  top  of  the  sills. 
Even  this  will  not  prevent  seepage  in  an  earth  floor,  if 
water  comes  down  to  the  house  from  above.  There 
must  then  be  an  outside  drain,  or  good  banking.  This 
one  point  often  makes  the  difference  between  a  satisfac- 
tory, and  a  wholly  unsatisfactory,  house,  and  in  general 


TYPES   OF  MODERN  HOUSING  159 

experience,  health,  and  egg  yield.  The  concrete  founda- 
tion disposes  of  this  difficulty  effectually. 

Edgar  Warren,  a  New  Hampshire  poultry  raiser  of 
some  reputation,  describes  one  of  his  houses,  newly  built, 
which  he  regards  as  "  a  model."  It  is  twelve  by  twenty- 
four  feet  on  the  floor,  seven  feet  high  at  the  front,  four 
and  one  half  feet  high  at  the  rear.  It  faces  south, 
having  three  glass  and  two  curtained  windows.  The 
glass  is  at  the  south  and  east.  The  curtained  windows 
are  three  by  four  feet  in  size,  fitted  with  frames  hinged 
at  top  and  covered  with  heavy  duck.  The  roof  is  double- 
pitch,  the  short  rafters  being  three  feet,  the  long  ones 
ten  feet,  in  length.  The  floor  is  of  boards,  and  the  house 
is  covered  with  patent  roofing  of  red  rope  on  sides  and 
ends,  the  roof  being  shingled.  The  material  cost  $50, 
and  it  was  intended  to  house  fifty  hens.  Mr.  Hunter, 
a  poultryman  and  editor  for  almost  a  lifetime,  criticises 
adversely  the  short  front  pitch,  the  low  back,  and  the 
shingle  roof  ;  also  the  east-end  window.  Many  poultry- 
men  like  the  quickly  laid  cheap  patent  roofings  for  roof 
as  well  as  sides.  They  keep  drafts  out  more  surely. 
But  the  Beginner  can  see,  by  this  difference  of  opinion 
between  experts,  that  there  is  room  for  the  exercise  of 
his  own  judgment,  and  for  adaptation  to  circumstances. 

Five  square  feet  of  floor  space  is  counted  a  fair 
amount  of  room  for  each  hen,  when  the  flock  is  con- 
fined. Professor  Halpin  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that 
while  each  hen  might  be  satisfied  with  five  square  feet, 
or  less,  if  she  could  also  use  the  space  belonging  to  other 
hens,  by  moving  about  a  large  house,  if  confined  alone  in 
a  space  of  five  feet  or  less,  she  would  not  thrive  ;  that  is, 
the  larger  the  house,  the  more  safely  can  the  space  per 


TYPES   OF   MODERN  HOUSING  l6l 

hen  be  cut  down.  He  thinks  farm  hens  often  have  not 
more  -than  one  square  foot  of  space  per  hen.  If  the 
house  is  to  be  only  a  roosting  place,  this  may  be  all 
right ;  but  it  certainly  is  all  wrong  if  the  hens  must  stay 
much  in  the  house. 

The  "  A  "  house  is  cheapest  of  all,  and  may,  if  de- 
sired, be  used  on  a  sled  foundation,  the  usual  square  base 
being  one  board  high.  Such  a  shelter  is  not  adapted  to 
laying  houses,  which  an  attendant  must  enter  and  move 
about  in.  It  is  often  used  for  sheltering  outdoor  brooders 
and  weaning  the  chicks  after  the  brooder  is  removed. 
Professor  Halpin  favors  a  roof,  called  "  the  two-thirds 
span,"  with  the  gable  one  third  the  way  back  from  the 
front,  especially  for  deep  houses.  He  says  :  "  Built  with 
the  same  pitch  of  roof  and  the  same  elevation  at  the  rear, 
this  house  contains  less  air  space  and  is,  therefore, 
warmer  than  the  shed  roof  type.  It  requires  twice  as 
much  cutting  of  rafters."  (See  New  Jersey  Roof  Chart.) 

I  am  especially  glad  to  call  attention  to  the  style  of 
the  "Clark  House."  This  is  usually  called  the  "semi- 
monitor  "  type.  Deeper  houses  are  becoming  more 
and  more  favored.  Any  old,  shallow  shed  type  of 
house  can  be  made  into  a  deep  semi-monitor  house. 
Sometimes  a  low  front  portion  is  added,  merely  for  a 
scratching  place  for  laying  hens.  The  height  of  the 
old  portion  would  limit  the  height  of  the  new.  Professor 
Halpin  says  :  "  It  is  possible,  in  this  type  of  roof,  to  re- 
duce the  air  space  and  secure  sunshine  in  the  very  back 
of  the  pen,  and  it  makes  a  very  practical  small  poultry 
house.  Many  times,  the  south  side  needs  only  to  be 
covered  with  wire,  and  in  mild  localities  it  is  to  be  recom- 
mended for  the  open-front  type." 


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TYPES   OF   MODERN  HOUSING  163 

The  clever  reader  will  note  that  this  house  seems 
much  like  the  Tolman  house,  but  that  it  overcomes  the 
lack  of  sunshine  due  to  the  Tolman  low  front.  The 
semi-monitor  throws  sunlight  to  the  very  back  corners, 
and  thus  satisfies  the  modern  demand  for  the  disinfective 
power  of  sunshine  throughout  the  house.  But,  in  doing 
this,  the  glass  which  occupies  largely  the  narrow  upright 
space  where  the  roof  breaks  and  lowers,  becomes  a  radi- 
ator of  heat,  thus  cooling  the  house  quickly.  This  is 
overcome  by  curtaining  these  upper  windows,  or  shutter- 
ing them. 

At  the  New  Jersey  Station  new  houses  of  various 
types,  and  using  different  kinds  of  roofings,  were 
erected  in  1910.  Professor  Lewis  recommends  only 
one  type  of  building  for  a  permanent  house  that  is  to 
be  set  directly  on  the  ground.  This  has  a  solid  wall 
of  brick,  stone,  or  concrete,  the  last  being  the  most 
economical.  For  the  wall,  a  trench  is  first  dug,  and 
bedded  several  inches  deep  with  cinders.  On  this  is 
set  a  form  for  the  concrete,  narrower  than  the  trench. 
The  concrete  itself  may  be  made  as  an  agglomerate 
of  stone,  etc.  On  both  sides  the  concrete,  cinders 
are  filled  in  for  drainage.  The  wall  rises  above  the 
surface.  A  layer  of  good  cinders  is  at  the  bottom  of 
the  concrete  floor.  A  two-inch  coating  of  concrete, 
consisting  of  six  parts  sand  and  gravel  to  one  part 
cement,  ts  aid  upon  the  cinders.  When  this  is  dry, 
a  finishing  coat  made  with  three  parts  sand  to  one 
of  cement  is  laid  very  smoothly.  If  the  house  is  deep 
and  long,  a  pier  is  set  at  the  center,  at  intervals,  built 
after  the  same  manner  as  the  side  walls.  On  this  stable 
foundation,  the  preferred  house  is  erected. 


164  THE   BEGINNER   IN   POULTRY 

Concerning  the  permanent  house  and  the  best  type 
of  foundation,  Professor  Halpin  says  :  "  Where  rats 
are  at  all  troublesome,  a  substantial  cement  foundation 
is  a  good  investment.  This  should  always  be  brought 
from  six  inches  to  a  foot  above  the  surface  and  then 


At  Work  on   Solid   Concrete  Foundation,  New   Jersey   Experiment  Station. 
Note  Removable  Forms  and  Binding  Braces 

filled  iii  with  coarse  material  such  as  gravel,  etc.  In 
extremely  wet  locations,  especially  in  clay  soil,  it  often 
pays  to  excavate  under  the  entire  house  and  replace 
with  stones  or. other  coarse  material,  and  then  connect 
with  tile  drains  to  remove  all  the  water  from  under 
the  house.  In  many  localities  where  stones  are  abun- 
dant, poultry  houses  are  placed  on  stone  walls,  but 
unless  cement  is  used  to  fasten  the  stones  together 
securely,  rats  will  often  work  under  the  house  and 


TYPES   OF  MODERN  HOUSING  165 

do  a  great  deal  of  damage.  A  loose  stone  wall  soon 
becomes  an  ideal  dwelling  place  for  rats,  and  should, 
on  that  account,  never  be  placed  under  poultry  houses. 

"  A  dirt  floor  must  always  be  well  above  the  outside 
surface,  so  that  the  water  drains  away  leaving  the  floor 
dry  and  comfortable  for  the  fowls.  Where  a  cement 
foundation  is  used  for  the  house,  one  can  frequently 
tamp  the  surface  hard  and  then  fill  in  to  the  top  of 
the  foundation  with  sand.  This  sand  should  be  re- 
placed each  year  before  cold  weather. 

"  A  cement  floor  is  much  easier  to  keep  clean  and 
is  durable  and  rat-proof.  A  cement  floor  should  never 
be  left  bare,  but  should  be  kept  'constantly  covered 
with  at  least  three  inches  of  sand  and  with  from  six 
to  ten  inches  of  straw  in  winter.  When  sand  cannot 
be  had,  extra  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  floor 
heavily  littered  so  that  none  of  it  becomes  bare. 

"  In  case  a  cement  floor  is  used,  it  should  always 
be  built  so  as  to  be  just  even  with  the  top  of  the  foun- 
dation so  that  the  entire  surface  is  smooth  and  easily 
cleaned.  Where  a  cement  floor  and  foundation  are 
placed  in  a  house,  it  is  usually  better  to  put  in  the 
floor  before  constructing  the  house." 


XIV 
HOME-MADE   CONVENIENCES 

Handy  Paneling—  Movable  Labor  Savers  —  A  Makeshift 
Grain  Feeder — Vertical  Nest  Series  —  Comfort  First  — 
A  Feed  Hopper  —  Swinging  Jail  for  Sitters  — Oat- 
sprouting  Cabinet  —  Summer  Coop  of  Wire  —  Run  for 
Small  Chicks  —  An  Original  Coop  —  Large  Piano-box 
House 

As  the  average  Beginner  does  not  care  to  make  large 
investments  till  he  has  tried  things  out  a  bit,  one  of  the 
things  for  him  to  learn  at  the  start  is  that  some  home- 
made contrivance  may  do  just  as  much  good  work  for 
him  as  a  higher-priced,  patented  "supply."  Some  of 
these  things  may  come  into  hourly  use,  like  a  feed 
hopper ;  some  into  daily  use ;  some  only  into  seasonal 
use,  like  the  wire  weaning  coop. 

One  of  the  simple  things  which  may  come  into  daily 
use  during  the  chick-raising  season  is  a  set  of  panels, 
two  feet,  three  feet,  or  four  feet  wide,  it  may  be.  The 
two-foot  panels  are  nearly  always  made  of  inch-mesh 
netting,  as  they  are  chiefly  used  to  confine  small  chicks. 
If  not  told,  nearly  every  poultry  raiser  learns  slowly, 
through  experience  in  spoiling  many  of  his  chicks,  that 
even  the  smallest  chicks  must  be  confined  by  an  inclos- 
ure  that  is  firm  and  taut ;  and  vertical ;  else  they  will 
soon  learn  to  walk  it  like  a  tight-rope.  If  it  incline  at 
all,  it  must  be  inward,  at  the  top.  Three  panels,  made 
of  wire  net,  stapled  to  one-  by  two-inch  frames  braced 
at  the  middle,  may  be  hinged  together.  Three  strong 

1 66 


HOME-MADE   CONVENIENCES  167 

leather  hinges  will  do,  if  the  hint  as  to  stiff  setting  of 
the  inclosures  is  strictly  followed.  Two  of  these  panels 
may  be  two  feet  two  inches  wide  and  ten  or  twelve  feet 
long.  The  third  may  vary  in  length  from  the  width  of 
a  coop  to  any  desired  length,  up  to  twelve  feet.  The 
union  of  the  three  may  form  a  yard  running  out  from  a 
coop  or  house,  or  may  be  used  as  a  triangular  yard  to 
confine  chicks  at  any  desired  point.  The  quality  of 
being  movable  or  portable  is  of  very  great  advantage  in 
housing  or  yarding  helps.  There  is  on  sale  paneled 
wire  fencing  of  this  character  which  is  very  good  indeed. 
It  can  be  made  more  cheaply  by  one  who  is  handy,  but 
a  sample  of  the  sale  kind  is  a  good  object  lesson  in 
bracing,  which  is  the  key  to  usefulness  in  such  supplies. 

A  small,  single  panel,  smoothly  made  on  three-fourths 
inch  framing  material  to  fit  the  style  of  coop  selected, 
may  be  the  means  of  saving  scores  of  chicks.  These 
are  chiefly  used  to  close  the  coops  at  night,  and  they 
cut  off  all  depredation  by  roaming  vermin  at  night 
or  before  the  owner  gets  up  in  the  morning.  These 
are  best  fitted  to  slide  behind  the  slatted  coop  fronts. 
The  worker  who  does  not  take  great  pains  to  select  a 
first-class  type  of  coop,  and  make  them  all  to  one  scale, 
so  that  the  panels  may  fit  all  the  coops,  makes  an  initial 
mistake  that  may  cost  him  much. 

A  makeshift  grain  feeder,  useful  especially  to  those 
who  have  to  be  away  all  day,  but  good  for  any  poultry 
keeper  with  a  few  fowls,  consists  of  a  castaway,  bottom- 
less pail,  to  the  bottom  of  which  may  be  wired  a  pie- 
plate  turned  bottom  upward.  A  narrow  space  is  left 
between  the  pail  and  this  loose  bottom,  so  that  the  pail, 
when  moved,  will  scatter  a  few  grains  of  feed.  The 


1 68  THE   BEGINNER   IN   POULTRY 

pail  is  hung  from  the  ceiling  of  the  house,  and  the  hens 
will  "do  the  rest."  The  house  needs  to  be  well  littered, 
in  order  that  the  fowls  may  scratch  for  what  they  bring 
down.  The  cover  to  the  pail  may  fit  as  tightly  as  the 
owner  desires.  If  it  is  smaller  than  the  pail,  the  pail 
may  be  hung  a  little  high,  and  the  birds  will  fly  up  and 


Cornell  Rat-Proof  Feed  Hopper  Closed.     This  Reduces  Cost  of  Production 
and  May  Be  Copied 

get  some  grain  that  way,  at  the  same  time  scattering 
more. 

A  series  of  nests  which  I  have  used  in  a  small  space 
came  as  the  result  of  necessity.  The  house  I  was  using 
had  not  wall  space  enough  for  the  nests  upon  the  usual 
level.  A  long,  narrow  box  chanced  to  be  available. 
Instead  of  placing  it  horizontally,  I  set  it  up  on  end, 
fitted  it  with  shelves,  and  nailed  front  strips  to  each,  thus 
forming  nests.  Such  an  arrangement  would  be  an  im- 
position on  the  hens,  however,  were  it  not  for  the  alight- 


HOME-MADE   CONVENIENCES 


169 


ing  stick  placed  at  the  base  of  each  nest.     These  sticks 
are  sometimes  in  the  worker's  way ;  hence,  it  is  wise  to 
study  the  space,  and  place  the  series  of  sticks  on  the 
side  where  they  will  interfere 
the  least  with  moving   about. 
If   on   a   side    next   the    roost 
platform,  the  hens  will  appre- 
ciate   this    lift.      These    nests 
must  not  be  placed  too  close 
together   in  the  series,  as  the 
hens  would  not  have  room  to 
fly  up  comfortably. 

This  is  not  a  small  matter. 
On  the  day  I  write,  I  have  been 
reading  the  story  of  the  suc- 
cess of  a  Beginner's  venture  in 
poultry.  He  was  not  an  igno- 
rant Beginner,  however,  for  he 
had  taken  a  College  Poultry 
Course,  and  had  practiced  much 
and  taught  somewhat  before  he 
struck  out  for  himself.  He  has 
been  immediately  successful  on 
a  large  scale ;  but  the  thing  I 
wish  especially  to  note  is  that 
every  employee  on  his  place  is 
trained  to  think  first,  last,  and 
all  the  time  of  the  comfort  and  contentment  of  the  birds. 

A  wall  feed  hopper  may  be  made  from  a  soap  box  or 
other  well-shaped  grocery  box.  It  may  have  one,  two, 
or  three  compartments.  The  chief  trick  is  in  setting 
the  diagonal  front  at  the  right  height  and  angle  to  feed 


Make-Shift  Series  of  Nests, 
Placed  Vertically 


170 


THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


down  promptly,  while  yet  not  too  bountifully.  One  of 
the  chief  needs,  nowadays,  is  to  see  that  feed  boxes  of 
this  character  are  rat-proof.  The  Cornell  hopper  shows 
how  this  is  managed.  Such  hoppers,  when  used,  as 
they  often  are,  in  feeding  dry  mash,  lead  to  much  waste. 


Wall  Dry  Feed  Hopper.     Made  from  Soap  Box 

A  flat,  shallow  box,  set  below  the  hopper,  may  save  some 
grain  to  the  birds. 

A  convenience  needed  by  every  Beginner,  and  by 
every  poultry  keeper  who  hatches  with  hens,  or  even 
keeps  sitting  varieties,  is  the  "jail"  for  sitters.  From 
early  June,  onward,  especially,  there  will  be  a  continu- 
ous succession  of  sitters,  "  repeaters,"  etc.,  candidates 
for  confinement.  "  Breaking  up "  these  sitters,  or 
"  broodies  "  as  some  call  them,  is  a  continual  problem 
to  Beginners  and  to  farmers.  Sousing  with  water, 
chasing  with  dogs,  throwing  violently  from  the  nest, 
tying  by  the  leg,  are  not  only  cruel,  but  they  are  not 
efficient  methods  of  gaining  the  end  sought.  What  the 


HOME-MADE  CONVENIENCES  171 

birds  need  is  a  bit  of  rest,  a  new  idea,  and  extra  food 
enough  to  give  a  new  fillip  to  the  laying  powers.  The 
swinging  jail  supplies  the  needed  opportunities  for  rest, 
new  ideas,  etc. ;  good  feed  with  plenty  of  ground  oats 
in  it  will  give  a  new  start,  and  the  confinement  need  not 
be  solitary.  The  "  jail"  is  made  slatted  on  all  sides  but 


Swinging  Home-Made  "  Jail  "  for  Sitters 

the  top.  It  may  be  swung  from  the  roof,  about  a  foot 
from  the  floor;  but,  far  better,  I  think,  is  a  position 
under  some  leafy  tree,  swinging  from  a  horizontal 
branch.  Green  feed  must  not  be  forgotten.  A  door  in 
the  top  gives  chance  to  catch  the  fowls  when  necessary, 
and  cups  on  the  outside  may  contain  the  feed  and 
water.  Sometimes,  one  board  across  the  short  way  of 


172  THE   BEGINNER  IN   POULTRY 

the  coop  gives  the  birds  a  better  foothold  and  sitting- 
down  place.  A  little  trough  may  be  introduced  at  feed- 
ing time,  when  many  birds  occupy  the  "jail"  at  once. 
No  poultry  raiser  should  be  without  this  helpful  appli- 
ance. 

The  cabinet  for  sprouting  oats  has  become  one  of 
the  regularly  offered  supplies.  Such  a  cabinet  may  be 
made  by  any  worker  who  has  more  time  than  money, 
and  who  needs  to  furnish  extra  supplies  of  green  stuff. 
This  means  virtually  all  town  poultry  keepers,  and  many 
farmers  during  the  winter  season.  Those  who  have 
apples,  cabbage,  clover  chaff,  etc.,  can  get  along  without 
sprouted  oats;  but  the  oats  form  a  fine  addition  to  any 
winter  ration,  and  to  all  rations  for  fowls  in  confinement. 
The  cabinet  consists  essentially  of  a  four-square  upright 
frame,  made  with  cleats  to  carry  a  set  of  four-inch-deep 
drawers,  in  which  the  oats  are  spread  after  soaking. 
In  winter,  some  place  a  lamp  in  a  boxed  compartment 
below  the  drawers  for  added  warmth. 

When  we  get  outside  the  house  into  free  air  where 
the  chicks  are  to  be  raised,  we  find  several  things  which 
can  be  made  at  home  with  a  saving  of  money,  if  time  be 
available.  The  netting  weaning  coop  is  one  of  the  most 
desirable  aids  to  raising  good  birds,  as  more  chicks  are 
spoiled  during  the  weeks  after  weaning  than  at  any  other 
time.  When  left  alone  to '  take  care  of  themselves  (as 
they  think)  they  are  timid,  especially  at  night.  Not 
one  in  the  bunch  is  willing  to  be  exposed  to  danger  on 
the  outside,  near  the  front;  hence,  they  crowd  and 
trample  for  the  back  corners,  and  smother  on  hot  nights. 
The  coops  soon  get  too  small,  and  this  is  too  apt  not  to, 
be  noticed.  The  birds  grow  too  large  for  the  openings 


HOME-MADE   CONVENIENCES  173 

between  the  coop  slats,  and  hip  and  back  injuries  be- 
come common.  The  remedy  is  a  good-sized  weaning 
coop,  with  a  low,  broad  roost.  Entering  it  in  the  day- 
time they  learn  to  like  the  roost,  and  soon,  to  use  it 
at  night,  also.  Those  which  do  not  must  be  taught  to 
do  so. 

During  the  hottest  six  or  eight  weeks,  my  preference 
would  be  for  a  coop  constructed  chiefly  of  wire  except 
for  the  roof  and  the  side  next  the  prevailing  wind,  which 
we  will  make  the  back.  The  roof  should  overhang  to 
protect  the  end  birds  from  rain.  This  coop  may  have 
two  one-inch  by  three-inch  strips  nailed  together  to  form 
each  corner  angle.  A  similar  strip  may  be  used  at  the 
top,  on  both  sides  and  in  front.  A  ten-inch  board  should 
follow  all  around  the  bottom.  Such  a  coop,  being  so 
light,  must  be  anchored  to  the  ground,  or  it  may  become 
a  flying  machine  during  any  high  wind.  It  may  have 
a  floor  or  not,  as  the  owner  chooses.  Generally,  I  pre- 
fer a  floored  coop.  The  back  is  to  be  of  matched  stuff, 
or  carefully  battened.  If  theworker  has  been  foresighted 
enough  to  plan  his  early  coops  on  the  right  scale  to  per- 
mit this,  the  panels  which  closed  the  baby  chicks  se- 
curely may  now  be  used  as  buttoned-in  fronts  to  the 
weaning  coops,  which  will  need  an  upright  strip  at 
center  to  help  this  plan,  and  also  for  strength.  More 
of  these  coops  throughout  the  country  would  mean  many 
more  good  birds  in  the  fall. 

In  raising  motherless  chicks  without  a  brooder,  a 
handy  inclosure  may  be  made  so  as  to  be  easily  mov- 
able from  any  spot  which  has  become  undesirable,  at 
will ;  from  soiled  ground  to  clean,  from  shade  to  sun,  or 
the  reverse,  from  wind  to  sheltered  corner.  Half-inch 


174  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

stuff,  ten  inches  wide,  with  cleats  on  the  ends  of  each 
board,  make  the  preferred  sides.  Two  boards  may  be 
ten  feet  long;  the  other  two,  three  feet,  more  or  less. 
Two  feet  of  flooring  at  one  end  gives  always  a  dry 
refuge,  but  the  device  is  helpful  without  it.  A  bracing 
cross  strip  will  be  needed  at  the  middle.  For  baby 
chicks,  it  can  be  used  without  a  screen  top ;  but  since  a 
screen  will  mean  safety  from  prowlers,  it  is  a  wise  pre- 
caution to  have  one.  The  screen  is  best  made  sepa- 
rately, and  hooked  securely  to  place.  Twenty-five  chicks 
may  be  comfortable  and  happy  for  three  weeks,  under 
such  a  screen,  if  the  shelter  be  moved  often.  They  are 
better  on  wider  range,  of  course,  when  this  is  available 
and  free  ranging  is  safe.  "  Hand-raised  "  chicks  can- 
not wisely  be  given  unlimited  liberty,  because  they 
have  no  center  to  keep  them  together,  as  when  there 
is  a  hen  to  call  them  and  a  place  to  call  "  home-and- 
mother." 

An  excellent  brood  coop,  two  feet  by  three  feet  on  the 
floor  with  general  form  like  a  shed,  may  have  the  two 
back  corners  cut  off,  to  render  it  a  safer  home.  If  the 
roof  projects  and  is  made  to  fit  over  the  coop  proper,  it 
will  give  easy  access  to  the  floor  for  cleaning.  By 
cleating,  on  the  under  side  of  the  roof,  it  is  made  to  fit 
very  closely.  One  third  the  front  may  be  boarded  for  a 
shelter  corner,  the  rest  slatted  just  closely  enough  to 
confine  the  hen,  and  a  netting  panel  used  for  night  pro- 
tection. The  front  section  has  room  behind  it  for  this 
panel  to  slide  in.  The  roof  is  removable. 

Piano  boxes,  both  upright  and  laid  flatwise,  are  much 
used  by  those  who  can  secure  them.  They  cost  a  little 
more  than  half  as  much  as  new  lumber  in  some  localities. 


176  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

One  poultryman  of  my  acquaintance,  Mr.  C.  K.  Vander- 
bilt,  built  a  house  for  two  hundred  hens,  using  piano 
boxes  entirely  for  the  siding.  The  house  is  16  feet  by 
65  feet,  with  incubator  cellar  15  feet  by  16  feet;  milling. 
room  and  grain  storage  of  the  same  size.  It  took  about 
seventy-five  piano  boxes  for  material.  The  house  is 
8  feet  high  in  front  and  has  muslin  front  "  windows." 


XV 
THE   IDEAL    BIRD 

The  Good  Pullet  —  Lusty  Strength  Based  on  Proper  Food 
—  Exercise  and  Health  —  Three  Methods  —  Rosy 
Stories  —  Age  of  Maturity  —  The  Fancier's  Ideal  — 
Intrinsic  Value  —  Judgment  of  Quality  —  The  Average 
Bird  a  Unit  of  Measure 

To  the  egg  farmer,  his  precious  maturing  pullets  are 
the  delight  of  life  and  the  objects  of  keenest  care.  On 
them  will  depend  his  winter  income.  On  their  earliness, 
thrift,  and  general  well-being,  his  hopes  are  founded.  It 
has  been  said  elsewhere  that  the  Beginner's  first  busi- 
ness was  to  learn  to  raise  good  birds.  The  .difference 
in  results  between  a  good  and  a  poor  pullet  is  often  the 
difference  between  money  in  and  money  out  during  the 
long  winter.  He  whose  pullets  are  a  source  of  money 
out,  throughout  the  long  winter,  while  bringing  nothing 
in,  will  soon  become  skeptical  as  to  the  profits  in  poultry 
keeping. 

A  good  pullet  is  well  grown,  thrifty,  full  of  vitality, 
active  and  eager  in  temperament,  and  usually  a  hustler 
after  food.  Breed  characteristics  make  some  difference, 
but  the  pullet  which  is  active  for  her  feed  is  more  likely 
to  make  the  satisfactory  layer.  This  eager  activity  de- 
pends far  more  largely  on  the  perfection  of  health  and 
a  keen  appetite  than  most  people  imagine.  The  real 
work  of  developing  a  crack  pullet  lies  in  so  feeding  her 
that  she  will  eat  every  ounce  possible,  while  still  not 
overeating.  Overfeeding  and  ill-balanced  feeding  tend 

N  I77 


i78 


THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


to  heaviness  and  laziness;  these,  in  time,  tend  toward 
barrenness  and  general  unthrift.  The  animal  economy 
calls  for  food  just  balanced,  to  its  needs,  whether  those 
needs  be  bare  existence,  growth,  active  exercise,  or  re- 
production. And  it  is  one  of  the  laws  of  animal  being 

i  that  lusty  strength 

to  produce  many 
and  vigorous  prog- 
eny rests  on  the 
simple  basis  of 
proper  food,  com- 
bined with  suffi- 
cient free  exercise. 
The  invigorating 
and  stimulating 
power  of  exercise, 
its  warming,  digest- 
ing, and  cleansing 
powers,  its  preven- 
tion of  crop-bound, 
diarrhoea,  rheuma- 


Head  of  Rose  Comb  Brown  Leghorn  Male,  Ap- 
proaching the  Ideal.  Wattles  Not  So  Well 
Rounded  As  Standard  Demands.  Note  Look 
of  Strength 

tism,   cramps,   and 

in  young  chicks,  leg  weakness,  are  a  long  list  of  credits ; 
when  we  add  that  by  keeping  mind  and  body  occupied, 
it  prevents  the  formation  of  bad  habits,  such  as  feather 
pulling,  comb  picking,  "  cannibalism,"  egg  eating,  and 
that  it  also  prevents  gorging  and  logy  breaking  down, 
works  off  surplus  fat,  makes  eggs  more  fertile  and  in- 
sures stronger  chicks,  we  have  a  table  of  values  which 
Beginners  and  old  hands  alike  may  well  look  over  fre- 
quently; lest  they  forget ! 

Every  Beginner,  who  is  raising  his  first  flock,  has  three 


THE  IDEAL  BIRD  179 

chances.  First,  he  may  produce  a  lot  of  pullets,  rang- 
ing from  very  poor  to  very  good,  and  carry  them  all 
through  the  winter.  Second,  he  may  raise  about  the 
same  number  and  kind  and  cull  sharply,  carrying  only 
the  strictly  good  through  to  the  next  year.  Third,  he 
may  handle  his  advance  work  so  well  and  so  intelligently 
that  he  will  have  very  little  culling  to  do,  nearly  all  his 
pullets  being  of  the  grade  which  will  pay  to  keep  over. 
In  the  first  case  he  is  doomed  to  pay  money  out  all 
winter,  with  infinitesimal  returns.  In  the  second,  he 
will  get  fair  returns  above  expenses,  if  the  birds  were 
early  hatched.  In  the  third  instance  his  outgoes  may 
be  large,  but  his  income  will  be  larger,  and  only  in  this 
case  will  his  hopes  be  fulfilled.  This  third  method  is 
fully  possible  only  to  the  one  who  holds  control  of  the 
stock  which  laid  the  eggs  to  produce  his  pullets.  Cull- 
ing properly  begins  with  the  breeding  stock.  In  the 
farm  flock,  every  bird  is  usually  a  breeding  bird.  If 
every  breeding  bird  is  active  and  vigorous,  there  need 
be  no  cull  pullets  when  the  chicks  are  handled  with 
sufficient  judgment  and  care.  But  if  any  of  the  breeders 
are  below  par  in  physical  vigor,  no  care  of  the  chicks 
can  make  them  all  first  class. 

The  rosy  stories  of  pullets  laying  when  fourteen  to 
twenty  weeks  old,  so  often  told,  become  a  stumbling- 
block  to  all  Beginners.  The  quick  maturing  Leghorns 
and  their  kind  should  lay  earlier  than  the  Asiatics,  but 
the  ideal  pullet  does  not  lay  too  early.  In  reviewing 
the  catalogue  of  a  breeder  who  claims  wonderful  laying 
records,  I  was  struck  with  the  sentence :  "  Not  one  of 
these  laid  an  egg  before  the  middle  of  December."  Run- 
ning over  the  topics  in  "  999  Questions  and  Answers  " 


l8o  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

I  find  this  on  early  laying  of  pullets  :  "  It  depends  to 
some  extent  upon  the  breed  and  very  largely  upon  the 
care  and  feeding  from  hatching  time  till  maturity.  Un- 
der the  most  favorable  conditions,  pullets  should  begin 
to  lay  at  about  eight  months  of  age."  This  is  the  most 
conservative  statement  I  have  ever  seen  in  print.  Most 
such  answers  affirm  that  the  birds  should  lay  at  about 
five  to  six  months.  I  think  the  extended  experience  of 
most  growers  will  show  rather  that  seven  months  is  a 
very  common  maturity  age.  This  means  that  birds  which 
are  to  begin  even  as  early  as  mid-December  must  be 
hatched  by  mid-May. 

There  is  only  one  point  in  which  good  pullets  fail. 
In  the  breeding  pen,  while  many  thousands  of  pullets 
produce  their  quota  of  eggs  for  hatching  every  year,  and 
many  of  them  produce  good  chicks,  the  chances  are  in 
favor  of  the  yearling  or  two-year  hen,  with  a  cockerel 
well  toward  a  year  old,  producing  better  ones.  "  The 
best  is  good  enough  for  me  "  is  not  a  bad  motto  for  any 
poultry  keeper.  One  who  takes  this  for  his  poultry 
motto  will  not  try  to  raise  chicks  from  immature  poultry. 
Older  birds  will  have  been  tested  at  least  through  one 
full  season,  and  any  short  of  full  vigor  will  have  been 
culled  out.  This  insures  better  average  vigor  in  the 
chicks  than  can  be  obtained  with  immature,  untested 
birds.  Such  tested  hens,  which  have  been  tested  at 
the  same  time  for  digestive  and  laying  capacities,  will 
do  much  towards  growing  chicks  and  matured  fowls  to 
reach  the  ideal  of  the  motto,  both  as  to  vigor  and  as  to 
producing  capacity. 

In  the  eyes  of  the  utility  worker,  the  ideal  bird  is 
typified  by  the  specimen  ip  the  prime  of  health,  matu- 


THE  IDEAL  BIRD  181 

rity,  and  vigor,  and  capable  of  fullest  productive  capacity. 
But  to  the  fancier  this  bird  is  only  half  ideal.     To  the 


"The  Beauties  of  Symmetry:  "  White  Leghorn,  Nearly  Ideal 

beauty  of  health  and  vigor  he  desires  to  add  the  beauties 
of  symmetry  and  of  outward  coloring.  Some  one  says, 
"  The  ideal  bird  must  combine  in  its  make-up  both  fancy 
and  utility  points."  Some  deny  the  possibility  of  this. 


1 82         THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

.... 

(In  another  chapter  I  have  shown  the  difficulties  attend- 
ing the  attempt  thus  to  combine  beauty  and  work-a-day 
qualities.)  Yet,  since  beauty  becomes  but  ugliness  with- 
out the  lovely  bloom  of  health,  this  health  must  be  basic 
for  the  fancier.  And  since  the  utility  quality  of  egg 
laying  is  an  absolute  necessity  to  the  continuance  of  her 
kind,  his  exhibition  female  is  decidedly  lowered  in  both 
intrinsic  and  extrinsic  value  if  she  be  not  a  good  layer. 
A  mid- West  judge  recently  stated  that  some  exhibition 
specimens  of  a  heavy  laying  breed  which  he  had  obtained 
from  the  breeders  of  "  the  best,"  in  the  fancier's  point 
of  view,  were.  "  simply  worthless "  as  egg  producers. 
This  is  the  result  that  may  be  expected  to  follow  surely 
upon  the  attempt  to  create  an  ideal  bird  by  breeding 
solely  to  the  beauty  standard. 

What  is  an  ideal  Wyandotte  ?  Is  it  the  chalk-plum- 
aged,  short  "retuse"  specimen,  resultant  from  the  effort 
to  fill  the  demand  for  an  all-white,  short-bodied,  blocky, 
bird  ideal  ?  The  Wyandotte  is  the  blocky  bird  par  ex- 
cellence. But  it  is  utter  folly  to  reshape  her  till  she  is 
longer  from  breast  to  back  than  from  front  to  rear,  and 
to  ruin  her  laying  capacity  while  creating  a  monstrous 
freak.  The  ideal  bird  is  never  a  freak  ;  there  is  no  de- 
mand for  freaks  among  the  sane  who  work  toward  ideals  ; 
even  beauty  freaks  —  if  such  can  be  —  are  barred  ! 

Judgment  as  to  quality  is  a  thing  of  growth.  It 
comes  through  daily  seeing,  handling,  and  comparing 
the  birds.  The  feathers  are  so  deceptive,  that  in  order 
to  know  the  condition  of  the  utility  chick  or  fowl,  one 
must. accustom  himself  to  the  feel  of  the  body,  under 
the  feathers.  By  handling  many  birds  many  times, 
one  acquires,  in  time,  a  sure  judgment  as  to  condition, 


184  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

weight,  plumpness,  etc.  The  position  of  prominent, 
movable  bones  back  of  the  keel  is  considered  a  pretty 
fair  index  of  the  approach  of  laying  maturity,  or  of  lay- 
ing at  any  time.  As  the  body  is  distending,  or  becomes 


'The  White  Queen."     This  Bird  Has  Been  Used  as  a  Model  of  Runner  Type. 
•   Photograph  Not  Retouched 

distended,  with  eggs,  these  bones  spread  apart  springily. 
This  spreading  is  probably  a  sure  index  of  the  approach 
of  laying.  But,  as  these  bones  naturally  lie  farther  apart 
in  some  birds  than  in  others,  it  is  necessary  to  be  some- 


THE  IDEAL  BIRD  185 

what  familiar  with  the  breed  and  the  individual  birds  in 
order  to  make  the  test  a  sure  one. 

In  the  same  way,  a  mental  "  unit  of  measure  "  becomes 
the  possession  of  the  fancier  who  lives  through  many 
months  with  his  birds.  The  unit  of  measure  is  the 
average  bird.  The  fancier  has  to  acquire  a  keen  judg- 
ment as  to  how  each  individual  bird  compares  in  value 
with  the  average  specimen,  and  also  how  far  it  is  below 
the  ideal  of  its  breed,  either  for  the  breeding  pen  or  the 
show  room.  Most  fanciers  would  prefer  the  bird  that 
was  pretty  good  in  all  sections  to  one  that  was  exception- 
ally good  in  some  sections  while  notably  poor  in  others. 
The  poultry  publications  which  publish  the  best  unre- 
touched  photographs  are  of  much  value  to  the  Beginner, 
because  of  these  alone ;  they  offer  him  good  birds  from 
which  to  make  comparisons.  In  his  own  yards,  he  may 
not  have  them  because  of  a  restricted  purse ;  and  if  he 
has  them,  he  cannot  know  it  until  he  either  exhibits  or 
studies  birds  of  known  value  till  he  has  formed  a  basis 
for  judgment. 


XVI 
LINE   BREEDING   AND    MENDEL'S    LAW 

Root  Meaning  of  Special  Terms  —  Multiplied  Ancestors 
for  Every  Bird  —  Giving  a  Fowl  Fewer  Ancestors  — 
Possible  Evils  — The  Emphatic  Point  — The  Theory 
of  Line  Breeding  —  Double  Mating  —  Applied  Heredity 
—  Color  Domination  —  Scope  of  Mendel's  Law  —  Its 
Limits  —  Brevity  Points 

IF  you  are  a  fancier  just  budding,  you  will  be  looking 
over  everything  you  can  find  about  breeding,  and  will 
often  stumble  upon  the  expressions,  "  line  breeding," 
"  Mendel's  law,"  "  atavism,"  "  strain,"  etc.  While  these 
words  are  in  the  dictionaries,  poultry  keepers  sometimes 
shade  the  meanings  a  little,  and,  in  order  that  we  may 
have  them  grouped  together,  I  will  give  the  root  mean- 
ing of  each  of  several  terms  which  are  almost  sure  to  be 
used  in  any  discussion  of  this  kind. 

Strictly  speaking,  the  word  "  hybrid "  means  the 
progeny  of  a  union  of  two  species  ;  "  mongrel,"  that  of 
the  union  of  two  breeds.  A  "  cross  "  is  a  mixing  of 
stock,  "a  hybrid  of  any  kind."  A  "mongrel"  is  also 
the  progeny  of  a  cross  of  any  kind.  "  Inbreeding  "  is 
breeding  together  animals  that  are  closely  related.  An 
"  outcross,"  according  to  Professor  Pierce,  Poultry  In- 
structor of  Iowa  State  College,  is  the  result  of  breeding 
together  birds  of  different  varieties,  or  even  different 
"strains?'  A  "strain"  is  the  resultant  of  inbreeding, 
more  or  less,  together  with  selection.  When  birds  of 
any  flock  have  been  selected  for  certain  qualities  and 

186 


LINE   BREEDING  AND   MENDEL'S  LAW  187 

bred  together  till  they  bear  a  family  likeness  easily 
noted,  they  may  be  properly  called  a  "strain."  The 
Standard  of  Perfection  calls  it  "  a  family  bred  in  line." 
"  Atavism  "  is  what  poultrymen  often  call  "  throwing 
back  "  or  "  jumping  back."  It  is  reversion  to  the  traits 
of  ancestors,  perhaps  far  back. 

One  who  has  not  thought  much  along  these  lines 
needs  first  to  grasp  the  fact  of  multiplicity  of  ancestors 
behind  each  of  his  fowls.  A  certain  pet  of  yours, 
shall  we  say,  had  a  father  and  a  mother.  So  had  the 
father;  so  had  the  mother.  Here  are  seven  birds. 
The  four  grandparents  had  each  two  immediate  parents; 
this  makes  fifteen.  The  eight  great  grandparents  had 
each  two  immediate  parents,  making  sixteen  more.  The 
next  step  back  gives  thirty-two  more.  Here,  in  four 
steps  backward,  if  there  has  been  no  close  breeding,  we 
find  sixty-two  ancestors  of  your  pet.  In  a  smaller  degree 
it  is  the  "  melting  pot  "  over  again  ;  each  fowl  has  an 
infinite  number  of  ancestors,  and  is  the  sum  of  the  traits 
of  her  ancestral  family.  But  this  family  is  a  combina- 
tion, it  may  be,  of  hundreds  of  families  —  of  thousands  ! 
Who  shall  say  how  many?  Is  it  any  wonder  that  you 
cannot  make  the  descendants  of  your  pet  what  you  will, 
when  you  have  to  combat  constantly  characteristics 
continually  recurrent  from  the  past,  which  to  you  now 
seem  faults? 

Line  breeding,  to  put  it  into  clear  and  common  terms, 
is  simply  an  effort  to  give  a  fowl  fewer  ancestors.  This 
is  done  by  breeding  her  to  another  which  has  —  at  least 
in  part  —  the  same  ancestors.  Three  results  may  be 
counted  on  :  (a)  the  intensifying  of  faults  ;  (b)  the  inten- 
sifying of  virtues ;  (c)  the  lessening  of  vigor,  unless 


1 88  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

exceptional  care  is  taken.  The  Cornell  professors  say, 
in  a  Bulletin  on  Breeding  for  Constitutional  Vigor: 
"  Close  breeding  can  be  followed  with  success  only  when 
the  first  consideration  is  given  to  mating  strong  individ- 
uals." A.  S.  Galbraith,  the  English  poultry  expert, 
arguing  for  inbreeding,  even  to  produce  heavy  egg 
production,  tells  of  an  experiment  of  his  own.  Only 
eggs  from  the  best  layers  were  set.  Every  hen  laying 
even  one  infertile  egg  during  the  laying  season  was  re- 
jected ;  also,  every  one  which  had  ever  been  ailing,  though 
but  for  a  few  hours.  Not  one  exception  was  allowed. 
I  emphasize  this,  because  the  tendency  of  Beginners, 
and  of  most  breeders,  one  may  admit,  is  to  allow  excep- 
tions that  spoil  the  work  attempted,  usually  because  the 
exceptions  are  well  up  in  fancy  points. 

"  Prepotency,"  the  capacity  of  any  parent  to  transmit 
his  qualities  to  his  progeny  (more  than  his  share,  the 
dictionaries  say),  varies  in  different  birds.  It  may  be 
intensified  by  inbreeding.  Professor  Pierce  states  the 
danger  thus  :  "Persistent,  close  inbreeding,  such  as  the 
mating  of  brother  and  sister  for  several  generations, 
often  results  in  impaired  fecundity,  loss  of  size,  and 
decrease  in  constitution  and  vigor."  Poultrymen  call 
such  repetition  of  inbreeding  "  in-and-inbreeding." 
The  closest  form  is  the  mating  of  brother  to  sister,  as  they 
have  the  same  full  parentage.  Three  lines  of  the  same 
blood  may  be  started  and  carried  by  a  line  breeder :  one 
by  mating  brother  to  sister ;  one  by  mating  father  to 
daughter ;  a  third  by  mating  mother  with  son.  The 
progeny  are  then  bred  together,  to  suit  the  theories  and 
plans  of  the  breeder.  Many  years  ago,  Mr.  I.  K.  Felch 
published  a  chart,  showing  how  the  three  lines  of  related 


LINE  BREEDING  AND   MENDEL'S  LAW 


189 


blood  might  be  bred  together,  to  get  any  desired  union 
of  the  two  blood  lines  of  the  original  pair.     Professor 


Near-Perfection  to  Start  With.     (Courtesy  of  M.  R.  Jacobus,  New  Jersey) 

W.  H.  Card  has  recently  devised  a  new  chart  with  the 
same  object. 

Probably  the  point  which  needs  most  emphasis  when 
we  talk  to  the  Beginner  about  how  he  can  best  essay 
line  breeding,  is  that  he  needs,  more  than  any  other  one 


1 90         THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

thing,  to  have  an  original  pair  as  nearly  perfect  as  pos- 
sible. Plainly,  this  must  be  so ;  because,  he  is  setting 
out  on  a  course  which  will  not  only  intensify  virtues, 
but  defects  as  well.  The  fewer  defects  he  has  to  start 
with,  the  fewer  to  trouble  him  later.  Vigor,  in  both,  he 
must  have;  perfection  in  both,  is  only  a  dream.  Close 
approach  to  perfection,  however,  is  usually  a  matter  of 
dollars  and  cents.  Good  breeders  will  mate  a  pair  for  a 
customer  who  wishes  to  enter  upon  line  breeding ;  they 
will,  doubtless,  also  charge  him  well  for  the  birds.  Or, 
if  he  buy  a  good  breeder's  best  eggs,  he  may  get  some- 
thing from  them  to  suit  his  need ;  but  while  he  is  yet 
only  a  Beginner,  it  is  not  safe  for  him  to  trust  his  own 
estimate  of  the  birds. 

Theoretically,  a  defect  in  the  male  may  be  balanced 
by  especially  good  points  in  the  female,  in  the  section 
concerned.  Then,  if  the  defect  should  appear  in  the 
progeny,  a  mating  from  that  one  of  the  lines  which  was 
best  in  that  section  ought  to  "  balance  "  it.  In  effect, 
however,  that  which  is  expected  from  a  mating  does  not 
always  appear,  because  of  that  uncontrollable  factor, 
atavism,  whereby  the  bird  throws  back  to  an  ancestor, 
more  or  less  remote. 

It  has  been  said  that  no  noted  prize-winning  family  in 
any  line  of  live  stock  has  been  established  without  re- 
sorting to  inbreeding,  and  that  the  greatest  success  has 
always  attended  that  systematic  form  of  inbreeding 
known  as  line  breeding.  When  a  breeder  has  really 
established  a  line-bred  strain  of  stock,  one  that  meets 
his  ideals,  he  is  ready  to  reap  great  rewards  for  his  in- 
telligent work.  "There  is  no  satisfactory  excuse  or 
argument  that  can  be  offered  by  those  who  refuse  to 


LINE  BREEDING  AND   MENDEL'S  LAW  191 

follow  line  breeding,"  says  one  enthusiast.  It  enables 
the  breeder  to  add,  at  any  time,  from  one  sixteenth  to 
eleven  sixteenths  of  the  blood  of  either  parent,  and  he 
can  mate  the  original  blood  as  it  appears  in  descendants 
who  are  one  half  of  each.  Perhaps  the  most  difficult 
part  of  the  whole  work  is  in  keeping  the  pedigree  and 
marking  records  exact  and  complete. 

Double  mating  has  long  been  the  hoodoo  of  the  Be- 
ginner ;  and  this,  despite  the  fact  that  leading  breeders 
are  fast  to  say  that  there  is  no  other  way  to  produce 
winners  of  both  sexes  in  parti-colored  breeds.  Double 
mating  means  that  different  types  of  birds  are  used  to 
produce  exhibition  males  and  exhibition  females.  It  also 
means  that  half  the  birds  in  each  mating  (the  females, 
when  one  has  a  cockerel  mating,  etc.)  are  rank  culls.  It 
also  means  many  more  pens,  more  complexity,  many  more 
sets  of  birds,  because  the  exhibition  male  is  not  fit  for  the 
breeding  pen,  in  many  cases.  It  means  disaster  to  the 
Beginner,  unless  he  can  put  himself  into  the  hands  of  a 
reliable  breeder,  who  will  mate  birds  for  him  and  coach 
him  as  to  how  he  shall  mate  the  progeny.  The  Beginner 
who  buys  birds  of  unknown  breeding,  because  they  look 
well,  has  a  worse  proposition  than  any  in  mathematics. 
If  they  have  been  double  mated,  and  he  mates  good  birds 
with  good  birds  expecting  to  get  good  birds  of  both  sexes, 
he  gets  —  chaos  !  And  this  both  of  mind  and  of  stock. 
For  every  breed  in  which  double  mating  is  practiced,  the 
rules  for  mating  must  be  carefully  learned.  To  learn  as 
one  goes  along  will  take  a  lifetime.  The  Beginner's 
only  safety  is  in  learning  all  he  can  about  double  mating 
before  buying,  and  then  buying  from  a  breeder  of  probity 
who  will  assist  him  toward  success. 


1 92         THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

That  rediscovery  of  recent  years  known  as  "  Men- 
del's law  "  is  still  a  bone  of  contention.  To  name  it, 
in  some  quarters,  is  to  stir  up  vigorous  protest.  "  It 
won't  work,"  say  a  few,  who  think  themselves  fitted  to 
pass  judgment.  Yet,  if  it  be  a  real  law,  it  may  prove  of 
so  much  basic  importance  to  the  breeder  that  I  do  not 
wish  to  omit  giving  a  little  insight  into  it.  A  law  must 
always  produce  the  same  results  under  the  same  condi- 
tions. Those  who  question  this  law  of  Mendel's  say 
that  it  does  not  always  hold  good,  as  formulated;  which 
is  virtually  the  same  as  saying  that  it  is  not  a  law  of 
Nature,  at  least,  when  applied  to  animals.  It  was  first 
offered  as  a  law  for  plants. 

However,  Harper's  Magazine  for  December,  1908, 
contained  an  article  entitled  "  Applied  Heredity,"  by 
R.  C.  Punnett,  M.A.,  a  Cambridge  University  man. 
Referring  to  the  paper  in  which  Gregor  Mendel,  an 
Austrian  monk,  gave  to  the  world  the  results  of  his 
work  of  research  and  experimentation,  he  says  it  is  one 
that  "  for  magnitude  of  issue,  can  be  compared  only  with 
William  Harvey's  classic  treatise  on  the  circulation  of 
the  blood."  Because  this  especial  writer  is  willing  to  go 
on  record  with  this  straight-out  affirmation  :  "  The  prin- 
ciples he  enunciated  have  been  shown  to  hold  good  for 
animals  as  well  as  plants,"  I  shall  base  this  brief  no- 
tice of  Mendel's  law  largely  on  Mr.  Punnett's  review 
of  its  working  out.  There  is,  too,  another  reason.  It 
lies  in  the  fact  that  he  takes  a  fowl,  the  Rose-Comb 
Bantam,  to  illustrate  the  law.  This  breed,  having  both 
a  white  and  a  black  variety,  and  breeding  true  in  both, 
forms  an  accurate  and  convenient  example. 

A  tendency  which  we  may  call  color  domination  has 


LINE  BREEDING  AND   MENDEL'S  LAW  193 

much  to  do  with  modifying  results.  Should  we  cross 
the  black  and  the  white  bantams,  the  resulting  progeny 
would  be,  as  to  appearance,  all  black.  In  this,  black  is 
said  to  be  dominant  over  white  —  white  is  spoken  of  as 
recessive  ;  since  it  disappears  in  the  first  generation  of 
the  progeny.  But  lo  !  if  we  breed  birds  of  this  first 
generation  together,  this  recessive  reappears  in  a  cer- 
tain fairly  fixed  proportion  of  about  25  per  cent.  These 
white  birds  will  thenceforward  breed  only  white  stock. 
The  75  per  cent  of  blacks,  however,  are  of  two  kinds  as 
to  tendency ;  they  behave  differently.  These  are  dis- 
tinguished as  (a)  "pure  dominants,"  and  (^)  "impure 
dominants."  The  pure  dominants  give  only  blacks 
thenceforward,  even  when  mated  with  white  birds.  The 
impure  dominants,  like  their  parents,  give  three  blacks 
to  one  white,  in  the  progeny. 

It  is  explained  that  the  two  germs  which  unite  (the 
male  and  the  female  germ)  to  form  any  new  individual, 
are  transmitted  as  entities  or  units,  and  not  as  a  com- 
bination. That  is,  no  germ  cell  can  carry  both  black 
and  white ;  it  must  be  either  "  a  black  germ "  or  "  a 
white  germ,"  as  one  may  say.  If  both  the  meeting 
germs  which  unite  to  form  the  new  individual  are 
"  white,"  nothing  but  white  can  be  produced.  If  both 
are  "black,"  nothing  but  pure  blacks  can  be  produced. 
In  effect,  the  father  and  mother  cells  are  then  pure 
blacks  and  give  only  blacks.  If  there  are  an  equal  num- 
ber of  each  color  produced  by  each  parent,  the  above 
accounts  for  all  unions  of  the  same  kind  of  germ  cells. 
But  what  would  you  expect,  if  the  black  of  the  male 
chanced  to  meet  the  white  of  the  female  ?  Would  you 
say  gray  ?  Not  so  Nature.  Since  they  are  transmitted, 


IQ4  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

not  as  a  combination,  but  as  units,  we  may  say  striving  for 
place,  the  black,  being  dominant  to  white,  is  the  victor, 
and  all  the  resultant  progeny  are  black.  The  germ  cells 
of  the  progeny  are  part  pure  white  and  part  pure  black, 
as  in  the  parents,  but  in  both  parents  and  progeny,  the 
25  per  cent  of  pure  blacks  added  to  the  impure  blacks 
give  75  per  cent  of  blacks  to  25  per  cent  of  whites. 
Because  this  percentage  is  sustained,  it  is  believed  that 
all  the  hybrids  of  pure  black  and  pure  white  have  equal 
numbers  of  pure  "white"  and  pure  "black"  germ  cells. 
Whenever,  upon  union,  each  parent  furnishes  a  "  black  " 
germ,  the  resulting  progeny  is  .pure  black ;  whenever 
each  furnishes  a  pure  "  white "  germ,  the  resulting 
progeny  is  pure  white.  But  whenever  one  furnishes 
a  "  black"  and  the  other  a  "  white  "  germ,  the  oppor- 
tunity for  variants  is  given.  And,  because  black  is 
dominant,  and  each  parent  has  one  half  its  germs  of 
the  dominant  black,  black  overcomes  the  white.  We 
may  show  it  in  this  way  :  — 

{BLACK,  joined  to  BLACK,  gives  BLACK. 
WHITE,  joined  to  WHITE,  gives  WHITE. 
BLACK  (dominant),  joined  to  WHITE,  gives  BLACK. 

It  has  been  found,  on  rather  wide  trial,  that  structure, 
size,  shape,  color,  and  fertility  in  plants,  and  numerous 
characteristics  in  animals  come  under  this  law.  In 
sweet  peas,  color  is  dominant  to  white ;  tallness  is 
dominant  to  dwarfness.  The  crossing  of  tall  and 
dwarf  sorts  will,  therefore,  give  three  fourths  tall  in  the 
progeny.  "  The  long,  Angora  hair  is  recessive  to  short 
hair  in  rabbits,"  etc.  The  Cambridge  University  Experi- 
ment farm  began,  some  years  ago,  experiments  to  transfer 
immunity  to  rust  to  the  best  varieties  of  wheat,  accord- 


LINE   BREEDING  AND   MENDEL'S  LAW  195 

ing  to  the  Mendelian  law,  with  excellent  results.  The 
polled  character  in  cattle  has  been  found  dominant  to 
the  horned  characteristic.  Thus  is  offered  a  painless 
method  of  "  dehorning."  Mr.  Punnett  says  :  "  Man,  too, 
is  subject  to  those  same  laws  of  heredity  that  govern  the 
transmission  of  characters  in  plants  and  in  other  ani- 
mals." I  mention  this  here  in  the  hope  that  it  may 
help  to  stimulate  any  reader  who  may  find  the  law  not 
clear,  to  make  special  effort  to  grasp  and  understand  it. 
A  law  of  breeding  that  touches  all  the  plant  and  animal 
kingdom  gives  man  a  grasp  of  'all  breeding  problems 
which  makes  him  almost  a  divine  Creator. 

Although  I  have  not  seen  it  so  stated,  it  looks  to  me, 
on  examination  of  the  illustrations  given,  that  dominance 
usually  belongs  to  the  characteristic  longest  fixed  in  th6 
subjects.  We  might  perhaps  expect  that  this  would  be 
true.  The  use  of  this  law  is  limited  by  the  stated  fact 
that  not  all  characteristics  come  under  its  working. 
Those  which  do  are  first  sought.  When  found,  says 
Punnett :  "  Knowledge  of  the  Mendelian  principles  will 
enable  him  [the  experimenter]  to  combine  them  together 
according  to  his  will,  and  to  build  up  and  fix  a  plant  or 
animal  having  the  properties  which  he  considers  most  to 
be  desired." 

All  this  is  pertinent  to  the  Beginner  in  a  point  where 
he  often  runs  amuck ;  and  this,  even  though  he  do  not 
understand  the  working  of  the  law.  It  is  said  that  a 
cross  between  certain  strains  of  white  fowls  known  to 
breed  true,  results  in  the  production  of  birds  entirely 
colored  and  very  like  the  original  ancestor  of  all,  the 
black-red  fowl.  Probably  there  are  few  poultry  raisers 
who  have  not,  when  in  the  novice  stage,  gone  to  some 


196  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

expert  to  ask  whether  the  appearance  of  color  among 
his  white  birds,  or  of  white  among  those  which  should 
not  show  white,  was  not  sure  proof  of  impurity.  It  is 
proof  of  some  sort  of  a  throwback,  doubtless.  But,  if  it 
be  true  that  all  our  breeds  go  back  to  the  black-red 
jungle  fowl,  who  is  to  say  from  how  far  back  what  seems 
an  abnormality  now  may  come ! 

H.  L.  Allen,  in  a  sensible  article  on  inbreeding,  says : 
"  On  the  moderate  scale  which  has  characterized  my  own 
inbreeding  operations,  I  have  found  line  breeding  as  I 
have  attempted  to  describe  it  here  a  most  satisfactory 
method  for  producing  a  flock  of  birds  year  after  year 
that  will  adhere  closely  to  the  type  desired,  and  with 
fewer  reversions  to  the  earlier  type,  which,  even  in  our 
oldest  breeds,  was  existent  not  so  many  years  ago." 

General  estimate  of  the  value  of  line  breeding  has  long 
limited  its  value  to  those  who  were  striving  to  produce 
fancy  stock.  As  its  possibilities  open  with  study,  with 
experiment,  and  with  the  discovery  of  unsuspected  laws 
of  breeding,  such  as  Mendel's  law,  discussed  above, 
poultrymen  are  beginning  to  systematize  their  ideas,  and 
to  see  that  there  ought  to  be  possibilities  in  a  breeding 
law  that  would  help  the  market  poulterer  and  the  egg 
producer  as  well  as  the  fancier.  In  Australia,  poultry 
egg  producers  have  for  some  time  been  breeding  in  line 
to  produce  strains  of  unusually  prolific  layers.  This  has 
worked,  along  with  the  competitive  tests,  to  increase  the 
general  egg-laying  productiveness  of  Australian  birds. 

Over  in  New  Zealand,  the  man  who  claims  the  Indian 
Runner  with  the  stupendous  record  of  320  eggs,  states 
that  he  has  not  only  worked  up  one  strain  by  line  breed- 
ing, but  carries  several  others  of  entirely  different  blood, 


LINE  BREEDING  AND   MENDEL'S  LAW  197 

all  line-bred  strains,  in  order  to  save  himself  from  dis- 
aster if  he  should  by  chance  fail  with  the  first.  The 
idea  that  the  same  laws  can  be  used  to  produce  the  kind 
of  market  fowl  which  the  country  or  the  choice  of  the 
handler  demands  is  slowly  permeating  the  thinking  of 
the  poultry  contingent.  Despite  our  belief  in  the  old 
proverb  that  like  produces  like,  there  was  a  stumbling- 
block  somewhere,  and  for  many  years  no  one  could  find 
just  where  it  lay.  Apparently  at  random,  like  produced 
unlike  upon  occasion.  With  a  law  that  shows  under 
just  what  circumstances  like  will  produce  unlike,  we 
have  the  key  to  the  situation.  Our  proverb  may  be 
useful  after  all. 

BREVITY  POINTS 

Every  bird  will  inherit  from  the  heads  of  the  line. 

Close  interbreeding  may  intensify  defects  as  well  as 
virtues. 

Selection  culls  out  defects;  selection  holds  virtues. 
(Application  limited.) 

Narrow  head,  small  comb,  for  the  breed,  lack  of  size 
or  color  mean  lack  of  vigor ;  strength  of  color  in  eye, 
face,  furnishings,  and  plumage  denote  vigor;  as  does 
also  a  strong  voice. 

Extra  size,  color,  vigor,  are  demanded  in  the  founda- 
tion birds  of  a  line. 

It  is  folly  to  breed  from  a  bird  lacking  in  size,  weight, 
color,  or  "snap."  Intelligence,  interest  in  food,  in  life, 
and  in  people  are  marks  of  thoroughly  good  stock. 

Extra  size,  vigor,  color,  are  demanded  for  the  birds 
which  are  of  the  Line  Foundation.  They  must  be  of 


198  THE  BEGINNER  IN   POULTRY 

the  type  one  strives  for,  whether  it  be  an  egg,  a  meat, 
or  a  superior  exhibition  type. 

It  is  utter  folly  to  line  breed  from  a  poor  bird  —  a  bird 
lacking  in  any  essential  point. 

It  is  poor  judgment  to  breed  from  a  bird  whose  own 
ancestry  is  poor. 

It  is  folly  to  breed  from  a  bird  with  narrow  head,  or 
from  a  female  giving  eggs  poorly  shaped,  poor  in  shell  or 
color,  or  lacking  in  size. 

It  is  folly  to  breed  too  near  the  danger  line. 

It  is  folly  not  to  cull  sharply. 


XVII 
RECORDS   FOR   FUTURE   STUDY 

A  Man's  Poultry  Past  —  Stopping  the  Leaks  — The  Be- 
ginner and  "  Systems  "  —  "  Hovering  "  The  Chicks  - 
Methods    not    Feasible  —  Income     versus    Outgo  - 
Trap  Nesting  —  Good  Dollars  Eaten  —  A  Beginner's 
Success 

IF  there  is  any  one  person,  who,  more  than  others, 
needs  to  keep  accurate  accounts  for  his  own  sake,  and 
to  refer  to  them  often,  it  is  the  Beginner.  In  justice  to 
him,  I  will  say  that  he  is  usually  pretty  faithful  to 


How  Not  to  Do  It.     Neglect  and  Filthy  Soil.     Study  This  "  Record  "  Well 

the  former  part  of  this  proposition,  —  more  so  than 
the  "old  hand."  But,  there  is  little  value  to  a  record 
that  is  n.ot  studied.  Any  one  will  be  apt  to  study  a 
record  of  unquestioning  success,  study  it  even  gloatingly. 

199 


200  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


.,  for  purposes  of  education,  a  record  of  failure  is  often 
far  more  valuable  than  a  record  of  success. 

Nothing  less  than  the  facts  and  figures  spread  nakedly 
before  him  will  enable  one  who  has  not  been  successful 
to  ferret  out  the  real  points  of  difficulty.  But  the  one 
who  fails  is  too  often  the  very  one  who  has  not  courage 
to  look  at  his  poultry  past  ! 

It  is  not  merely  that  one  ought  to  know  whether  or 
not  the  stock  as  a  whole,  or  any  special  side  line,  has 
paid  fair  returns  on  whatever  of  money,  time,  or  strength 
has  been  spent  in  its  interest.  But,  if  it  have  not  done 
so,  one  must  be  able  to  find  out  just  what  caused  the 
leaks.  For  "leaks,"  in  any  business  which  deals  with 
very  numerous  items  or  entities,  are  the  most  dangerous 
and  uncertain  things  with  which  one  must  deal.  And, 
it  is  just  this  one  key  fact,  viz.,  that  he  cannot  find 
and  stop  the  leaks,  that  often  makes  one  man  a  failure 
as  a  poultry  handler,  while  his  near  neighbor  makes 
money  "hand  over  hand." 

A  stranger  wrote  me  out  of  the  depths  of  experience  a 
story  of  initial  success,  followed  by  failure  almost  abso- 
lute. This  is  so  unusual  that  it  was  no  wonder  he  felt  hu- 
miliated, and  was  on  his  mettle  to  re-reverse  the  situation. 
Yet,  as  I  reviewed  his  story,  I  saw  that  he  had  failed  at 
the  very  point  where  the  Near-Beginner  is  always  prone 
to  fail,  —  that  is,  at  the  point  where  he  begins  to  increase 
largely.  This  worker,  however,  had  not  struck  quite  the 
usual  snags. 

His  story  was  that  he  began  with  a  small  flock  of  In- 
dian Runners.  He  was  fortunate  in  getting  the  white 
egg  strain,  from  the  original  importations  from  England, 
where  these  ducks  have  been  bred  for  scores  of  years. 


202  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

His  birds  exceeded  all  his  expectations  as  producers,  and, 
naturally,  he  increased  his  numbers.  He  was  just  a 
plain  farmer,  working  for  market  eggs,  but  his  success 
outdistanced  anything  else  of  which  I  ever  heard.  In- 
creasing up  to  115  stock  ducks,  he  reported  having 
gathered,  daily,  for  more  than  a  month  in  succession,  an 
average  of  112  eggs.  This  was  a  marvelous  product, 
even  in  the  best  month  of  spring.  Just  at  this  time,  his 
evil  genius  suggested  that  he  get  some  outside,  new 
blood.  Not  knowing  of  the  two  types,  he  acquired  some 
males  which  changed  his  flock  to  green-egg  producers, 
and  reduced  the  yield  very  greatly.  Thoroughly  dis- 
gusted, he  tried  a  Pekin  cross,  which  was  also  disappoint- 
ing in  the  extreme.  The  last  I  heard  from  him  was  that 
he  had  just  discovered  the  reason  for  his  failures,  and  was 
on  the  warpath  for  some  pure-bred,  white-egg  Runners, 
once  more. 

Increase  of  stock  is,  in  itself,  a  very  healthful  sign. 
But,  too  rapid  increase,  or  ignorant  increase  is  often 
fatal.  It  is  here  that  records  help  again.  The  cause  of 
the  fatalities  connected  with  increase  of  stock  nearly  al- 
ways lies  in  the  fact  that  the  handler  does  not  manage  as 
he  did  at  the  first.  Of  course,  large  numbers  are  neces- 
sarily managed  somewhat  differently  from  small  lots,  as 
to  detail  work,  \>\&  principles  cannot  change,  and  whenever 
the  handling  of  the  increase  bumps  up  against  a  principle 
of  working  that  macje  for  the  worker  his  earlier  successes, 
he  is  in  line  for  failure.  For  instance,  large  flocks  foul 
the  soil  incredibly  soon  ;  large  flocks  of  uneven  birds 
crowd  and  trample  all  but  the  fighting  percentage; 
large  flocks  deplete  the  bank  account  most  painfully  in 
the  off  season.  At  this  time,  it  is  of  great  value  to  have 


RECORDS  FOR  FUTURE  STUDY         203 

a  book  of  records  of  happenings  and  of  work,  and,  if 
possible,  of  averages,  which  may  be  studied  for  the  clew 
to  success  with  the  larger  venture. 

The  trap  nest  is  a  simple  thing,  but  the  Beginner  may 
simply  stand  still  and  mark  time  if  he  fail  to  appreciate 
its  value.  I  do  not  believe  that  the  common  man  can 
afford  to  bother  with  trap  nests,  all  the  time,  and  for  all 
his  fowls.  But  the  use  of  a  set  of  trap  nests  with  one 
pen  of  fowls  for  a  season  or  two  will  teach  one  effectively 
many  things  which  others  have  tried  to  teach  him,  without 
having  been  able  to  make  their  words  striking  enough  to 
reach  his  real  consciousness.  An  essential  thing  to  learn 
is  the  necessity  of  finding  how  to  increase  the  income 
without  also  increasing  the  outgo.  It  costs  quite  nearly 
the  same  to  maintain  the  idle  hen,  the  fairly  good  layer, 
and  the  rarely  good  one.  But  the  extra  good  layer  must 
have  an  extra  good  appetite ;  she  must  eat,  not  only  the 
maintenance  ration,  but  enough  more  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  her  output  of  eggs,  whatever  it  may  be  as  to 
number.  As  the  egg  may  range  from  65.5  to  75.8  water 
(Atwater's  figures),  the  amount  of  feed  required  by  the 
layer  above  that  taken  by  the  idler  who  merely  eats  for 
the  fun  of  it  need  not  be  considered  excessive.  But,  she 
must  be  a  good  eater  with  a  good  digestion,  or  she  cannot 
be  a  good  layer. 

The  trap  nest  will  show  some  surprising  things.  You 
may  have  a  lot  of  hens,  looking  fairly  alike,  which  are, 
you  think,  doing  reasonably  good  average  work.  The 
trap  may  show  you  that  while  you  are  averaging,  they 
are  not;  they  are  individualizing.  One  is,  perhaps, 
doing  nothing,  at  least  two  thirds  of  the  year ;  another 
is  not  so  bad,  but  still  much  below  your  averages ;  one 


204 


THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


or  two,  doubtless,  are  doing  phenomenally  good  laying. 
Nothing  else  could  impress  this  fact  on  the  consciousness 
of  a  Beginner  so  forcibly  as  a  bit  of  demonstration  work 
I  saw  at  the  New  York  State  Fair  in  1911.  It  consisted 


Home-Made  Trap-Nest  Series.  Rear  Doors,  entered  from  Platform,  Swing 
Inward.  Similar  Doors  in  Front,  Swing  Outward.  Hen  Leaves  Nest  at 
Will,  Entering  Confining  Pen 

simply  of  three  "  Record  hens  "  and  their  respective  out- 
put. The  output  was  shown  in  wire  net  receptacles,  and 
was  seen  at  a  glance.  One  of  these  contained  eight  eggs ; 
a  second  contained  one  hundred  twenty-eight  eggs ;  the 
third  contained  one  hundred  seventy-five  eggs.  Any 
Beginner,  pondering  on  reasons  why  some  people  con- 
tend that  poultry  does  not  pay,  while  others  demonstrate 
that  it  does,  needs  only  to  figure  the  difference  in  gross 
returns  from  the  hen  that  lays  eight  eggs  a  year  and  the 
one  that  lays  one  hundred  seventy-five  a  year,  in  order 


RECORDS  FOR  FUTURE  STUDY         205 

to  pounce  on  that  elusive  "  reason."  This  is,  of  course, 
an  extreme  illustration  ;  all  the  more,  it  shows  most  viv- 
idly just  what  I  mean.  On  the  day  before  this  writing, 
I  read  a  report  from  a  woman  poultry  raiser,  claiming 
that  her  flock  of  seventy  hens  had  averaged  two  hundred 
forty  eggs  during  a  year.  No  one  has  ever  ventured 
to  tell  me  such  a  story  face  to  face ;  but,  between  an 
actual  eight  on  one  hand  and  a  possible  (or  impossible) 
two-hundred-forty  average  on  the  other,  there  ought 
to  be  a  safe  place  for  the  sole  of  the  feet,  even  of  the 
shaky  Beginner. 

Professor  Dryden,  of  Oregon  Agricultural  College,  re- 
ports a  Plymouth  Rock  trap-nested  hen  making  a  record 
of  two  hundred  fifty-nine  eggs  in  twelve  months. 
"  In  the  same  pen  with  the  record  Plymouth  Rock  hen," 
he  says,  "  we  had  one  which  laid  but  six  eggs,  although 
she  was  of  the  same  breed  and  received  the  same  care 
and  feed.  The  trouble  was  in  her  heredity." 

There  are  many  who  say  that  the  phenomenal  layer 
is  not  at  all  likely  to  reproduce  herself ;  that  her  undue 
amount  of  work  is  such  a  strain  upon  the  reproductive 
organs  that  she  will  produce  eggs  not  hatchable,  or  will 
produce  weaklings.  That  will  depend  somewhat  on  her 
handler.  If  he,  finding  her  value,  pushes  her  to  the 
verge  of  exhaustion  in  trying  to  get  a  few  more  eggs, 
she  may  become  worthless  as  a  producer  of  stock.  Or, 
if  the  egg  organs  are  not  perfect,  or  the  digestion  be 
affected  by  the  strain  (shown  by  the  droppings),  she  may 
not  reproduce  well.  But  if  she  lays  an  egg  perfect  in 
shell  and  her  droppings  are  well  shaped,  with  the  bright, 
white  cap,  I  say  she  will  give  you  as  many  chicks  as  the 
next  one.  That  is  not  saying  they  will  all  be  like  her.  But 


206  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

if  you  mate  her  best  daughters  with  a  son  who  resembles 
her  in  general,  I  think  you  can  make  progress. 

At  any  rate,  it  is  good  sense  to  reproduce  from  the 
best  all-around  stock  you  have.  A  bird  good  in  only 
one  or  two  points  is  not  a  desirable  breeder,  whether  for 
utility  or  for  fancy.  The  one  practical  and  sure  way  to 
follow  this  out  is  to  trap  nest.  If  you  do  this,  you  will 
know  far  more  about  each  hen's  individual  peculiarities, 
because  you  will  observe  her  far  more  closely.  I  have 
known  farmers,  having  cross-bred  or  mongrel  stock,  to 
select  roughly  from  outward  appearance  and  noticing 
which  hens  laid  oftenest.  This  rule  of  thumb  is  worth 
something,  but  it  is  far  from  equal  to  trap  nesting.  And 
no  one  can  guess  how  really  inaccurate  it  is  until  he  has 
done  some  trap  nesting.  He  will  then  find  that  circum- 
stances have  often  deceived  him. 

The  trap  nest  has  its  undoubted  faults :  the  nervous 
hen  is  fretted  by  it;  the  more  "  stupid"  one  may  persist 
in  laying  anywhere  but  within  its  narrow  confines.  But 
any  one  who  has  studied  fowls  will  have  learned  that  he 
must  train  them  to  trap  nesting  as  he  trains  them  into  all 
other  desirable  habits.  "  Make  it  easy  to  do  the  right 
thing  and  difficult  to  do  the  wrong  "  is  good  counsel, 
whether  dealing  with  man  or  bird  or  beast.  Trap  nests 
must  be  used  without  the  traps  until  the  fowls  are  fully 
accustomed  to  their  use,  and  no  other  nests  must  be  al- 
lowed in  the  pens.  And  if  you,  by  chance,  have  shut 
your  hens  in,  several  days  before  you  furnished  them 
nests,  never  presume  to  blame  them  thereafter  for  laying 
in  the  litter ! 

The  selection  of  the  kind  of  trap  is  a  matter  of  some 
importance.  Those  having  a  detention  pen  into  which 


RECORDS  FOR  FUTURE  STUDY        207 

the  layers  pass  after  laying  are  probably  the  best.  If 
this  pen  be  common  to  several  traps,  one  identifies  his 
layers  fairly  well,  but  in  case  a  hen  leaves  the  trap  with- 
out having  laid,  he  cannot  identify  her  surely.  A  sec- 
ondary pen  for  each  nest  is  the  most  thorough,  accurate, 
and  comfortable  combination.  But,  in  using  this  form, 
one  doesn't  want  to  trap  nest  large  numbers. 

An  actual  report  of  results,  offered  the  public,  reads 
something  like  this  :  "  Hen  No.  5  laid  250  eggs  from 
September,  1 909,  to  September,  1910.  Three  of  her  eggs 
weighed  half  a  pound.  Hen  No.  6  laid  258  eggs  from 
October,  1909,  to  October,  1910.  Twenty  hens  laid  an 
average  of  209  eggs  in  1909." 

Dates,  months,  number  of  eggs  of  individuals,  and 
averages  !  These  data  cannot  be  given  accurately  unless 
there  is  an  honest  trap-nest  system,  with  an  honest, 
faithful,  and  accurate  handler ;  no  guesses,  no  mistakes. 
No  such  high  records  can  by  any  possibility  be  gained 
without  a  painstaking,  quiet  handler  who  is  also  a  good 
feeder,  and  hens  selected  for  constitutional  vigor  and  for 
eating  capacity. 

We  have  with  us  always  the  Beginner  who  wants 
to  raise  poultry  for  fun  or  for  family  needs,  and  who 
has  bowed  to  the  dictum  of  the  experienced  to  begin 
carefully,  even  though  he  wish  to  become  the  wonder 
of  the  countryside  eventually.  Unfortunately,  we  have, 
also,  the  man  with  the  very  large  ideas  which  refuse 
to  be  cabined  and  confined,  who  fully  expects  to  show 
all  those  heretofore  in  the  industry  what  very  poor 
business  men  and  poultry  raisers  they  are.  He  scorns 
to  figure  in  anything  less  than  thousands.  His  only 
road  to  success  lies  in  the  fortunate  securing  of  a  first- 


208  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

class,  fairly  conservative  potiltryman,  to  whom  he  may 
possibly  have  sufficient  sense  to  defer. 

The  Beginner  who  is  willing  to  take  small  risks  until 
the  time  when  his  planning  gives  reasonable  promise 
of  being  successful  may  be  pretty  sure  of  making  an 
eventual  sweep  of  the  good  things  of  poultrydom. 

A  sentence  from  a  published  report  of  an  editorial 
visit  to  an  advertiser's  poultry  farm  is  exceedingly 
illuminating.  "  Two  things  surprised  me  greatly  on 
Mr.  X's  farm :  first,  the  comparatively  small  number 
of  birds  raised ;  and,  second,  the  wonderful  average 
quality."  This  report  referred  to  a  fancier's  opera- 
tions. But  the  same  result  will  often  follow  those  of 
the  small  worker  in  just  market  stock,  or  layers  of 
table  eggs.  One  who  raises  but  a  few  young  birds 
is  more  than  usually  sure  to  raise  birds  of  high  average 
quality.  If  room  is  at  a  premium,  selection  will  be 
much  more  rigid,  and  a  small  flock  is  likely  to  get 
better  care  and  to  be  free  from  most  of  the  handicaps 
which  inevitably  belong  to  large  flocks. 

Records  of  laying,  records  of  purchase  and  sale, 
records,  even,  of  the  weather  have  a  value  to  the  Be- 
ginner far  above  that  which  they  may  have  to  one 
who  is  entirely  familiar  with  the  operations  which  make 
for  profit.  It  is  quite  certain,  however,  that  the  latter 
reached  his  enviable  condition  through  the  aid  of  rec- 
ords kept  when  he,  too,  was  a  Beginner. 

To  keep  a  record  of  outgoes,  without  one  also  of 
incomes,  is  to  become  a  detractor  of  the  hen.  Not  to 
keep  records  at  all,  but  to  stand  helpless  by  and  see 
good  dollars  (worth  of  feed)  thrown  to  insatiate  unpro- 
ductive birds  through  October,  November,  and  Decem- 


210  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

her  is  to  become  a  more  rabid  detractor  of  the  laying 
hen  as  a  money-maker.  If  this  unhappy  eggless  state 
continue  through  January  and  February  and  even  into 
March,  —  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  —  so  much  the  worse 
for  the  reputation  of  the  hen.  Yet,  even  then,  if  the 
hens  fed  have  been  rigidly  selected  for  vigor  and 
parentage,  they  will  have  reestablished  themselves  in 
favor  by  May,  and  will,  even  after  this  date,  vbegin  to 
make  the  income  more  than  meet  any  reasonable  outgo. 
But  who  is  to  know  the  real  facts,  if  there  be  no  ac- 
curate records  ?  No  one  can  deceive  himself  more  as 
to  real  facts  than  the  poultryman  who  relies  on  guesses 
or  on  memory  rather  than  on  actual  figures.  And,  as 
one  writer  cleverly  puts  it :  "  When  we  keep  accounts, 
we  virtually  pledge  ourselves  to  make  the  fowls  pay." 

The  little  story  told  by  one  young  man  who,  six  years 
before  this  is  written  was  a  Beginner  of  Beginners, 
is  good  proof  of  the  value  of  records.  He  started, 
not  "  at  the  bottom,"  but  down  below  the  bottom, 
since  he  borrowed  $5  wherewith  to  buy  his  first 
pair  of  fowls.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  birds 
were  in  duty  bound  to  pay  their  own  way,  and  records 
were  a  necessity.  The  pair  and  its  descendants  have 
paid  for  several  good  poultry  houses  and  their  ac- 
companying yards;  for  advertising,  for  feed,  and  for 
part  of  a  new  dwelling  for  their  owner;  besides  fur- 
nishing something  of  a  nest  egg  in  the  bank.  The 
owner  has  them  at  State  Shows  in  five  states,  and 
has  made  winnings  under  more  than  twenty  different 
judges.  He  works  hard,  and  studies  hard;  as  most  of 
those  in  any  kind  of  business  need  to  do  in  these  strenu- 
ous times  if  they  would  command  success. 


XVIII 
PROFIT  AND    LOSS 

Studying  Losses,  for  Profit  —  Crowding  and  Loss  —  Over- 
crowded Land  —  "  Relatively  "  — Where  will  the  Begin- 
ner Lose  ? — The  Mental  Attitude  —  Business  Instinct 
and  Detail  Work  — When  Experts  Disagree— The 
Handler  the  Chief  Cause  of  Losses  —  How  Hard  must 
One  Work  ? —Raising  Chicks  "  to  Perfection  " —Faulty 
Figures  —  Disillusion  —  Making  Income  cover  Season 

THE  discussion  of  "  profit  and  loss  "  usually  shows  a 
proneness  to  dwell  on  the  thought  of  "  profit " ;  and  I 
think  this  is  especially  the  case  when  it  comes  to  a  ques- 
tion of  poultry.  I  prefer  to  discuss,  rather,  the  losses. 
I  chance  to  know  a  gallant  young  poultryman  not  yet 
out  of  high  school  who  has  been  struggling  for  some 
years  with  this  painful  kind  of  arithmetic.  At  intervals, 
his  mother  attacks  me  with  poignant  inquiries  as  to 
whether  poultry  ever  really  does  pay.  And,  though  I 
have  not  the  figures,  I  am  given  to  understand  that  this 
flock,  into  which  the  lad  has  put  keen  interest,  enthusi- 
asm, time,  and  money,  far  beyond  the  average,  does  not 
pay.  And  this,  despite  the  fact  that  the  products  are 
largely  bought  to  supply  the  home  table.  I  gather  that 
the  income  has  an  ingrained  habit  of  failing  to  meet  ex- 
penses, even  though  we  ignore  all  mention  of  time, 
work,  etc.,  being  paid  for. 

Not  long  ago,  there  appeared  in  a  New  England  pub- 
lication (probably  the  most  conservative  one  in  the 
United  States,  dealing  especially  with  the  poultry  indus- 

211 


PROFIT  AND    LOSS  213 

try)  a  query  from  a  subscriber  as  to  profits  in  poultry 
raising.  It  was  based  on  a  quotation  (for  which  the  in- 
quirer vouched  as  correct)  from  "  an  official,  in  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  D.C.,"  affirming 
that  said  official  knew  of  only  one  profitable  poultry  farm  in 
the  country  !  This  created  something  of  a  stir  in  eastern 
Massachusetts,  where  a  pretty  large  percentage  of  the 
people  must  be  considered  as  either  congenital  idiots 
or  successful  poultry  raisers,  because  it  is  simply  incon- 
ceivable that  they  would  remain  in  an  occupation  which 
was  in  all  cases  unprofitable,  and  that  through  many 
•years,  even  to  lifetimes  ! 

The  conservative  editor  to  whom  this  query  came  pro- 
nounced the  statement  "ridiculous,"  affirmed  that  it 
emanated  from  a  man  who  was  not  a  poultryman,  and 
said :  "  I  doubt  whether  there  is  a  '  farm '  anywhere  in 
the  United  States  where  poultry  is  given  attention 
enough  to  supply  its  necessities  and  the  product  handled 
as  it  usually  is  on  farms,  where  the  poultry  is  not 
profitable."  I  give  this  deliverance  especially,  because 
this  particular  editor  has  never  been  known  to  put  em- 
phasis on  the  "rosy"  side  of  poultry  raising.  He  be- 
lieves, however,  that  the  poultry  on  most  farms  "  might 
be  made  more  profitable  than  it  is."  This  point  might 
be  very  easy  to  prove  by  figures.  But  poultry  on  most 
farms  necessarily  has  its  relation  to  the  other  work  of 
the  farm,  and  it  often  becomes  a  nice  question  as  to 
which  is  the  most  profitable  to  neglect.  With  some 
workers,  it  would  undoubtedly  be  the  poultry,  at  times. 

A  point  made  before  the  discussion  noted  was  closed, 
brings  us  again  to  the  question  of  crowding,  and  nails 
it  as  a  source  of  loss.  The  editor  favored  the  combina- 


PROFIT  AND  LOSS  215 

tion  of  some  trucking  and  fruit  raising  with  poultry  rais- 
ing, not  merely  for  the  profit  from  them  in  itself,  but 
because  he  regarded  them  as  a  means  of  staving  off  cer- 
tain definite  losses  common  to  poultry  raising,  through 
utilizing  the  manure  and  keeping  the  land  in  wholesome 
condition.  "  It  is  not  impossible,"  he  says,  "to  make  an 
exclusive  poultry  plant  pay,  for  a  period  of  years ;  but 
if  the  land  is  overcrowded,  the  risk  of  loss  is  increased, 
and  a  time  may  come  when  the  land  becomes  positively 
unfit  for  poultry."  I  call  especial  attention  to  the  fact 
that  his  view  goes  beyond  that  to  which  I  have  previ- 
ously drawn  your  notice,  viz.,  the  crowding  as  it  affects 
individual  birds  directly,  —  and  talks  of  overcrowded 
land  as  a  fundamental,  wide-reaching  source  of  loss. 

A  certain  statement  of  Professor  W.  J.  Spillman,  one  of 
the  government  employees,  may  well  come  in  for  a 
brief  consideration.  He  affirms  that  more  money  "  can 
be  lost  with  chickens,  relatively,  than  with  sheep  or  pigs." 
The  mind  of  any  reader  instinctively  demands,  "  Why  ?" 
This  is  one  of  those  statements  which  prove  irritating, 
because  so  indefinite  that  analysis  can  do  nothing  with 
them.  What  does  "  relatively "  mean,  for  instance  ? 
Relatively,  one  loses  a  hen  much  oftener  than  he  loses  a 
sheep,  possibly,  if  he  raises  both.  But  again,  relatively, 
with  common  stock,  he  can  afford  to  lose  eight  to  ten 
hens  for  each  sheep  lost,  and  still  come  out  even.  If  he 
chance  to  be  carrying  sheep  worth  five  dollars  each  and 
hens  worth  ten  or  twenty-five  dollars  each,  it  would  be 
marvelously  easy  to  prove  the  learned  Professor's  point. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  if  a  man  is  ignorant  enough, 
careless  enough,  or  stupid  enough,  he  can  probably  lose 
all  he  invests  either  in  sheep  or  in  pigs,  not  to  mention 


2l6  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

poultry,  and,  from  this  point  of  view,  the  quoted  state- 
ment would  mean  little  or  nothing. 

Should  you  ask  any  old  hand  with  poultry  just  about 
where  he  would  expect  a  Beginner  to  lose  money,  he 
would  doubtless  answer,  "In  the  things  he  overlooks, 
thinking  they  do  not  affect  the  main  question."  I 
suspect  that  slow  and  poor  development  of  the  chicks 
may  'be  counted  the  one  great  common  source  of  loss. 
This,  you  may  notice,  is  a  "loss"  of  something  the 
worker  never  had.  But  it  is  surely  one  great  hindrance 
to  profit.  It  tells  in  the  meat  sales  and  in  the  egg  sales. 
In  avoiding  the  causes  that  make  for  poor  development, 
the  skill  of  the  worker  is  most  severely  tested,  and  his 
timbre  most  fully  shown. 

When  it  comes  to  the  next  great  source  of  loss,  the 
matter  again  depends  much  on  the  one  just  discussed. 
If  there  are  many  poorly  developed  birds,  there  will 
almost  surely  be  weak-kneed  culling.  Many  fowls  will 
be  left  to  crowd  and  sponge  on  the  good  birds.  This 
means  relatively  large  feed  bills  —  big  bills  and  little 
returns  ;  another  loss  of  something  one  has  never  had  ! 
The  poultry  man*  s  profits  are  in  his  hopes  and  aims  ful- 
filled; his  "  losses  "  are  in  his  hopes  blasted.  This  just 
about  covers  the  situation. 

The  mental  attitude  of  the  grower  is  one  real  key  to 
success.  A  good  poultryman  is,  in  nearly  every  instance, 
a  good  business  man.  His  habit  of  mind  will  not  allow 
him  to  let  things  go  at  loose  ends.  He  needs  a  liking 
for  poultry  as  one  of  the  fundamentals,  but  that  liking 
will  not  take  the  full  place  of  systematic  business  methods, 
the  resultant  of  business  instinct. 

I  believe  it  to  be  an  almost  universal  rule  that  the  man 


2l8  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

who  would  succeed  in  a  business  composed  almost  wholly 
of  small  detail  work,  and  having  many  small  sources 
of  loss  and  profit,  must  have  better  business  instinct  than 
is  necessary  to  the  one  who  is  to  handle  work  with  less 
detail.  Perhaps  this  is  in  direct  opposition  to  the  gen- 
eral belief,  but  I  have  seen  it  demonstrated  too  often 
not  to  insist  on  my  point.  If  the  learner  have  the  right 
habit  of  mind,  he  can  master  the  operations  necessary ; 
if  not,  teaching,  and  even  experience,  will  not  make  him 
an  expert. 

Mr.  M.  Hastings,  in  his  "  The  Dollar  Hen,"  lays 
chief  stress  on  keeping  down  labor,  and  keeping  down 
expenses.  In  the  number  of  those  engaged  in  it,  he 
states,  the  "  chicken  business  "  is  the  largest  industry  in 
the  world.  A  practical  man,  himself,  he  says  to  the 
"  Man-Who-Wants-to-Know,"  with  considerable  vigor : 
"  If  your  climate  will  not  permit  the  hen  to  live  outdoors, 
get  out  of  the  climate,  or  get  out  of  the  hen  business." 
This  would  cut  the  (literal)  ground  from  under  far 
more  than  half  the  poultry  raisers  of  our  big  country, 
as  none  'of  us  at  the  North  have  the  advantage  of  a 
climate  where  the  hen  can  live  outdoors  throughout  the 
year.  Even  though  this  were  sound  common  sense,  it 
would  be  no  solution  of  the  question  for  the  common 
run  of  inquirers,  because  the  average  man  wants  to 
know  how  to  raise  poultry  with  credit  and  cash  surpluses 
just  where  he  is.  To  be  sure,  Mr.  Hastings,  was  refer- 
ring specifically  to  those  who  would  start  commercial 
poultry  plants,  or  those  who  might  wish  to  make  a  liv- 
ing from  poultry  alone  ;  which  fact  somewhat  restricts 
his  words  from  universal  application. 

Whatever   we  may  or  may  not  say  about  a   certain 


PROFIT  AND   LOSS 


219 


well-known  system,  there  is  no  doubt  that  its  originator 
is  a  man  of  keen  and  practical  mind.  In  the  face  of  the 
stern  necessity  of  the  above  requirements  for  location,  how 
is  it  that  we  find  Mr.  Hastings  so  far  away  from  him  in 
his  beliefs  and  practices  ?  The  system  man  affirms  that 
his  broilers  reach  two  pounds  at  eight  weeks,  and  that 


Actual  Variations  in  Retail  Prices  in  the  United  States,  in  Ten  Years :  From 
Six  to  Seventy-four  Cents 

he  has  no  loss  in  raising  them.  He  declares,  in  this 
connection,  that  there  is  "  a  living  in  poultry  keeping 
and  a  living  better  than  99  out  of  100  who  '  seek  work ' 
for  a  living  are  making.  The  location  is  but  a  small 
factor."  One  of  his  maxims  is,  "  To-morrow  will  NEVER 
do."  In  support  of  this  maxim,  he  asserts  that  all  but 
one  out  of  a  hundred  cases  of  failure  in  any  line  are 
caused  either  by  not  giving  attention  at  the  proper  time, 
or  else  by  giving  more  attention  to  something  else  than 
to  the  business.  He  refers  to  the  poultry  business  as 


220  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

"  the   one "    business   where   brains   count   more    than 
muscle. 

But,  here's  a  point  of  great  difficulty:  each  "  expert  " 
who  would  persuade  the  public  that  he  only  knows  the 
one  way  in  which  poultry  can  be  made  to  pay,  differs 
from  all  others,  as  a  matter  of  course,  with  regard  to 
the  essentials.  How  shall  the  lamblike  public  sort  out 
the  one  public  benefactor  from  the  scores  of  public 
fleecers?  It  certainly  follows  that,  if  there  be  only  one 
right  way,  all  the  rest  who  claim  exclusive  paths  to  suc- 
cess are  preying  upon  the  public.  They  must  be ! 

Despite  Mr.  Hastings's  final  pronunciamento,  here 
comes  the  system  "  expert,"  and,  not  content  with  say- 
ing that  location  is  but  a  small  factor,  he  insists  that,  in 
considering  possibilities  of  success,  he  can  tell  better 
when  he  knows  the  person  than  when  he  knows  the 
place  only.  In  this,  most  workers  would  agree  with 
him.  It  is  wholly  clear  that  he  considers  the  handler 
of  the  plant  the  most  uncertain  factor,  and  that  he  be- 
lieves that  this  handler  is  likely  to  be  the  chief  source  of 
losses,  when  these  occur.  This  is  a  hard  saying  for  the 
average  inquirer  to  assimilate  without  rancor  or  unbelief. 

But,  I  wonder  if  the  average  person  who  goes  into 
poultry  raising  expects  —  as  this  man  affirms  is  neces- 
sary—  to  work  as  hard  as  would  be  necessary  if  employed 
by  another !  "  The  work  of  raising  the  chickens  to  per- 
fection should  be  the  first  one  to  master,"  says  this  keen 
business  man.  Is  it  likely  that  the  average  inquirer 
will  do  this?  How  many  have  you  known  who  could 
raise  chickens  "  to  perfection  "  ? 

A  prolific  source  of  disappointment  lies  in  the  lack 
of  skill  in  making  the  income  from  the  fowls  cover  the 


PROFIT  AND    LOSS  221 

year.  It  does  not  seem  to  matter  so  much  whether  a  man 
have  much  capital  or  little.  If  he  have  much,  he  is  liable 
to  waste  it ;  if  little,  he  is  rather  likely  to  get  tangled 
up  in  winter  when  outgoes  are  beyond  incomes.  This 
is  one  of  the  good  reasons  why  asparagus  and  fruits,  etc., 
may  go  well  with  poultry ;  as  they  furnish  money  com- 
ing in  sometimes  just  when  the  poultry  income  slackens. 
Much  of  the  work  with  tree  fruits  can  be  done  at  a  time 
of  year  when  the  poultry  work  is  of  least  volume.  This 
point  needs  to  be  watched,  in  selection  of  combinations. 


XIX 


COST   OF   PRODUCING   EGGS,    CHICKS,    AND 
FOWLS 

Productive  Capacity  —  Cornell's  Findings  — A  Business 
Poultryman's  Views  and  Methods  —  Making  Prices  — 
Range  of  Cost  in  Egg  Production  —  The  "Average 

Hen  "  —  Cheap  Feeding  —  Free  Range  —  Feed  in  Aus- 
tralian Tests  — Profit  Twice  the  Cost— 1910  Prices 

-What  shall  Your  Eggs  Cost?  Your  Chicks  ?- 
Sprouted  Oats —  Principles  of  Big  Business  Men. 

THIS  question,  so  important  for  every  Beginner  to 
have  full  information  on,  is  very  difficult  to  be  definite 
about.  The  best  we  can  do  is  to  give  an  idea  of  cost 
under  different  circumstances,  and  leave  the  worker  to 
apply  the  facts  as  stated,  to  his  conditions.  Where  con- 
ditions vary,  truth  becomes,  for  the  time,  untruth.  This 
point  the  Beginner  must  have  always  in  mind  in  com- 
puting probable  costs. 

That  which  is  true  this  year  may  be  partly  false  next 
year ;  since  prices  of  feed  and  other  materials  vary  ; 
since,  also,  as  it  is  applied  to  different  localities,  that  which 
is  true  in  the  East  may  be  false  in  the  West.  Even  the 
productive  capacity  of  a  certain  fowl  may  differ  accord- 
ing to  the  climate  in  which  she  does  her  work.  More- 
over, the  poultryman  himself  is  a  factor  in  the  result 
which  may  make  my  figures  true  for  one  man  and  false 
for  another,  even  when  both  carry  the  same  breed  and 
live  in  the  same  locality.  A  knowledge  of  feeding 
values  such  that  it  allows  the  worker  to  substitute  a 

222 


COST  OF  PRODUCING  EGGS,  CHICKS,   AND   FOWLS    223 

cheap  feed  of  equal  nutrient  value  for  one  that  may  be 
temporarily  high  through  failure  of  crops  or  other 
cause,  may  make  a  large  difference  in  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  the  cost  of  producing 
eggs  or  market  stock  is  nearly  twice  as  high  at  the 
present  time  as  it  was  ten  years  ago.  Yet,  yesterday,  I 
received  a  letter  from  an  enthusiastic  Indian  Runner 
breeder  in  the  South,  telling  how  cheaply  he  could  raise 
the  Runner  Ducks,  and  how  much  money  could  be 
made  from  them  in  his  locality,  from  the  market  point 
of  view  only,  because  they  would  live  so  largely  on 
alfalfa  and  oats  "with  a  little  meat  thrown  in."  He 
continued,  "  They  do  eat  more  than  a  chicken,  but  even 
if  they  ate  twice  as  much  of  the  same  kind  of  feed, 
they  would  still  be  just  as  profitable,  for  they  will  grow 
more  than  twice  as  fast  as  a  chicken  during  the  first 
ten  weeks." 

In  the  year  1902,  the  Cornell  Station  put  out  a  bul- 
letin giving  the  detailed  results  of  a  cooperative  test  of 
the  cost  of  egg  production  in  New  York  State  at  that 
time.  In  this  work,  a  dozen  flocks  in  various  parts  of 
the  state  were  used,  running  in  numbers  from  25  to  600 
hens  in  a  flock.  By  this,  I  mean  those  which  belonged 
to  one  owner.  Although  these  were  all  within  the 
borders  of  one  state,  the  cost  of  feeding,  per  hundred, 
varied  from  $28.62  to  above  $39  for  the  seventeen 
weeks  from  the  beginning  of  December  to  the  end  of 
March.  The  average  production  of  the  2100  fowls 
represented  was  a  trifle  more  than  23  per  100  daily,  and 
the  average  food  cost  of  a  dozen  eggs  was  sixteen  and 
one  fourth  cents.  The  average  profit  above  cost  of 


224  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

feed  was  nearly  $24  per  100  hens,  for  the  entire  period. 
It  will  be  seen  that  this,  if  it  were  duplicated  in  the  re- 
maining months  of  a  complete  year,  would  not  reach  the 
$i  per  bird  which  was  so  long  the  standard  of  profit. 
The  poorest  flock  made  less  than  $2  profit  per  100 
above  cost  of  feed,  while  the  best  flock  (numbering 
1 50)  gave  $62  profit  over  feed  per  100  birds,  for  the 
seventeen  weeks.  Possibly  the  point  which  may  cut 
closest  to  the  quick  of  the  Beginner  is  this:  No  two 
flocks  produced  eggs  at  the  same  cost  per  dozen,  the 
best  costing  a  trifle  over  eight  and  one  half  cents  a 
dozen,  while  the  eggs  of  the  poorest  handler  cost  nearly 
34  cents  per  dozen.  Others  cost  13,  16,  19  cents,  etc. 
It  is  quite  possible  that  some  of  these  owners  had  better 
opportunities  for  buying  supplies.  But  it  is  abundantly 
evident  that  some  were  far  better  business  men  than 
the  others ;  possibly  more  skilled  feeders  as  well. 

A  skillful  dealer  in  poultry  products,  writing  in  the 
most  modern  and  businesslike  poultry  publication 
available  at  this  time,  gives  his  own  idea  of  the  attitude 
of  some  novices  thus :  "  The  second  class  constitute 
those  who  expect  to  brood  chicks  for  little  or  nothing. 
These  are  the  rankest  novices  in  the  business  and  are 
the  especial  marks  of  the  '  get-rich-quick '  boomers. 
This  kind  of  person  expects  so  much  for  so  little,  that 
he  is  hardly  worth  sympathy,  let  alone  attention  and 
advice.  Most  of  them  end  with  '  fireless  brooders  '  be- 
cause they  are  cheap."  Another,  very  different  class, 
noted  by  this  man  consists  of  fanciers  who  do  not  care 
about  expense,  if  they  get  efficiency.  Rightly,  he 
thinks,  we  should  insist  on  these  essentials  in  any  brood- 
ing outfit :  Efficiency,  economy,  saving  of  work,  lasting 


226  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

quality  of  equipment,  and  what  he  calls  "elasticity." 
Some  brooders,  he  rates  as  not  convenient ;  some  makes 
are  too  perishable ;  some  poorly  ventilated  ;  in  some, 
the  labor  was  found  so  great  as  to  be  prohibitive  when 
large  numbers  were  brooded.  Being  forced  by  the 


Cheap  Cheese  Box  Home  Made  "Fireless"  Brooder 

necessities  of  a  chain  system  of  egg-producing  farms 
under  one  management,  to  find  something  efficient, 
economical,  and  necessitating  little  work,  he  tried  the 
fireless  type  of  brooders,  under  the  best  advertised 
methods.  His  conclusion  was,  in  effect,  that  the  death 
rate  was  too  great,  the  economy  imaginary,  the  plan 
impracticable  where  time  is  an  element  of  value  and 


COST  OF  PRODUCING  EGGS,   CHICKS,  AND   FOWLS    227 

labor  expensive.  He,  in  common  with  most  other 
trained  business  men,  believed  his  best  profits  must 
come  from  lessened  cost  of  production.  Ultimately,  he 
worked  into  a  plan  of  using  the  low,  square  laying 
houses  as  brooding  houses,  with  an  aisle  down  the  center 
and  three  pens  on  a  side.  Toward  autumn,  the  divi- 
sions were  removed,  instead  of  moving  the  pullets. 
Thus,  there  was  no  check  to  laying.  This  he  names  "  a 
real  factor  in  successful  brooding."  This  plan  is,  he  as- 
severates, an  outgrowth  "  to  meet  the  practical  condi- 
tions of  a  money-making  plant."  He  points  out  its 
economy,  its  adaptability  to  a  man's  ideas  of  saving 
work  and  expense,  its  avoidance  of  the  exposure  of  work 
with  outdoor  brooders,  its  gain  in  space,  its  increased 
yarding  possibilities,  its  all-the-year  use  of  the  buildings. 
It  will  be  noted  that  all  these  points  are  in  the  line  of 
both  efficiency  and  economy. 

Passing  to  talk  of  eggs,  this  man  says :  "  Our  eggs 
are  in  a  class  by  themselves,  and  we  do  not  seek  to  follow 
market  quotations"  Prices  were  fixed  at  40  cents  and 
60  cents  a  dozen,  according  to  season,  and,  on  this  basis, 
in  the  second  year,  a  clear  profit  of  $4.17  per  layer  was 
reported.  I  have  not  the  figures  of  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion ;  all  costs  have  been  subtracted  from  the  income  — 
not  merely  that  of  feed. 

Some  producers  have  reported  the  cost  of  production 
of  their  eggs  at  less  than  three  cents  a  dozen.  An  ex- 
perienced editor  replied  to  a  query  as  to  "  cost  of  eggs 
for  the  average  farmer  "  that  it  ought  to  be  about  six  cents 
a  dozen.  It  has  been  stated  that  98  per  cent  of  the  poul- 
try business  of  the  country  is  conducted  on  the  farms ; 
but  to  "average"  five  million  farms  and  farmers,  more 


228  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

or  less,  is  a  difficult  matter.  Here  is  the  state  of  Mis- 
sissippi, for  instance,  to  which  the  census  of  1900  gave  an 
average  production  of  43  eggs  per  hen.  The  farm  price 
of  eggs  in  this  state  averaged  not  quite  10  cents  a 
dozen.  The  hen  brought  in  about  35  cents  a  year.  If, 
then,  it  cost  nothing  at  all  to  feed  her,  she  gave  a 


One  Month's  Product :  Left,  the  Forty-eight-egg  Hen  ;  Right,  the  Two-hun- 
dred-fifty-egg  Hen 

•'profit  "  of  about  one  third  what  the  "  average  "  hen  has 
for  almost  a  generation,  I  think,  been  supposed  to  produce 
for  her  owner.  The  South  Carolina  "  average  "  hen,  ac- 
cording to  the  same  figures,  did  a  little  less  well,  pro- 
ducing, as  per  report,  two  eggs  less  a  year  than  the 
Mississippi  birds.  In  seven  states,  the  average  was  be- 
low 45  eggs  per  hen  for  the  full  year.  Maine  hens  just 
touched  100,  and  two  or  three  others  nearly  reached 
this  figure.  But,  when  we  average  these  with  the  hens 
below  45,  how  it  pulls  the  figure  down  !  It  seems  to  me 
that  the  most  noticeable  point  in  the  report  is  the  fact 
that  Maine  and  New  Hampshire  lead  the  United  States, 
and  they  are  among  the  very  worst  as  to  atmospheric 
conditions.  Massachusetts  is  next  in  production  ;  all 


COST  OF  PRODUCING  EGGS,   CHICKS,  AND   FOWLS    229 

the  states  with  nice,  warm  weather  are  very  low  in  aver- 
ages. The  states  with  medium  weather  have  medium 
averages.  This  exactly  reverses  what  we  might  expect. 
The  only  reason  I  can  see  is  that  the  South  is  careless 
and  does  not  take  care  of  its  hens,  the  mid-states  are  too 
absorbed  in  general  farming  to  take  the  best  care,  and  only 
those  who  have  to  take  good  care  to  get  returns^  at  all 
are  showing  fair  average  returns.  Better  markets  at  the 
North  may  be  an  added  stimulus. 

What  about  the  hen  kept  in  confinement  ?  What  will 
be  the  cost  per  dozen  of  the  eggs  which  she  produces  ? 
That  depends  on  the  prices  of  feed,  the  quality  of  the 
hen,  and  the  quality  of  her  handler;  all  uncertain  points, 
and  difficult  to  "average."  A  hen  in  confinement,  with 
only  supplied  food,  will  eat,  of  hard  grain,  about  one 
and  one  third  bushels,  or  80  pounds.  If  this  were  wheat, 
at  two  and  one  fourth  cents  a  pound,  her  feed  for  the 
year  would  cost  $1.80,  and  if  she  laid  100  eggs  at  three 
cents  each,  she  would  have  $1.20  left  to  pay  for  the 
meat  and  green  stuff,  and  give  the  dollar  of  profit  which 
has  been  the  safe  standard  for  twenty  years,  perhaps. 

But  suppose,  on  the  contrary,  that  one  should  take 
one  and  one  third  bushels  of  oats,  costing,  possibly,  fifty- 
three  cents  if  bought  from  the  raiser  and  should  "  pro- 
cess "  it,  making  it  into  four  bushels.  This  would  bring 
the  cost  down  to  thirteen  cents  a  bushel.  The  fowl's 
health  would  be  so  much  better  if  this  were  made  a  liberal 
portion  of  her  daily  ration,  that  she  would  be  likely  to 
lay  more  eggs,  and  would  distance  the  bird  fed  on 
wheat  alone  several  times  over  in  the  matter  of  profit. 

Suppose,  again,  that  one  can  get  plenty  of  alfalfa,  cut 
short  and  fine,  —  not  when  it  has  been  through  the 


230  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

hands  of  the  middlemen  and  sells  at  the  rate  of  fifty  dol- 
lars, more  or  less,  for  a  ton,  but  from  the  producer.  It 
is  a  most  excellent  laying  and  growing  feed,  for  the 
foundation.  Two  parts  of  this,  one  each  of  bran  and 
fine  middlings,  and  one  fourth  as  much  linseed  meal 
would  make  an  excellent  dry  mash.  With  ground  meat 
in  another  hopper,  and  a  full  hopper  of  this  mill  stuff 
always  before  them,  the  birds  would  need  only  enough 
corn  and  oats  to  keep  them  exercising.  This  feed  ought 
not  to  cost  more  than  half  as  much  as  all  wheat,  while 
it  would  probably  give  fully  as  good  results  in  eggs,  and 
better  results  in  the  condition  of  yarded  birds. 

One  of  the  better-class  poultry  periodicals  worked  up, 
during  1911,  a  symposium  on  the  value,  in  practical 
terms,  of  the  Wyandottes,  the  birds  representing  most 
nearly  the  American  ideal  of  a  satisfactory  all-around 
fowl.  Breeders  of  Buff,  Columbian,  Silver,  and  Black 
Wyandottes  took  part  in  this  discussion.  A  tabulation 
of  these  opinions,  the  result  of  actual  experience,  shows 
the  breed  up  as  follows  :  — 

Fair  average  egg  yield,  first  year  of  laying  : 

Highest,  200  eggs 

Lowest,  140  eggs 

Average  of  all,  166  eggs 

Cost  to  hatch  and  grow  to  laying  age : 

Lowest  (free  range),  $  .35 

Highest,  $  .80 

Average  of  all,  $  .69 

Cost  of  keeping  mature  bird  one  year : 

Highest,  $2.00 

Lowest,  $   .90 

Average  of  all,  $  1.26 


COST  OF  PRODUCING  EGGS,   CHICKS,  AND   FOWLS    231 

As  to  feeds,  most  of  the  growers  began  with  chick  feed. 

One  grower  declared  his  faith  that  the  free-range  chick 
is  both  cheaper  to  grow  and  better  when  grown,  and  said 
that  free  range,  joined  to  a  provision  of  beef  scrap  and 
cracked  corn,  was  the  very  best  of  chick  combinations. 
The  grower  whose  estimate  of  cost  was  lowest  started 
his  chicks  on  free  range  and  rolled  oats  for  about  a 
month,  then  used  cracked  corn  and  a  mash  comprising 
equal  parts  of  bran  and  oats  with  half  as  much  beef 
scrap  and  twice  as  much  corn  meal.  When  near  matur- 
ity, whole  corn  took  the  place  of  cracked  corn.  Dr.  N. 
W.  Sanborn,  who  chanced  to  be  the  one  whose  estimate 
was  the  highest,  of  those  that  gave  exact  figures,  declared 
for  good  commercial  chick  feed  during  the  first  six 
weeks  ;  after  this,  dry  hopper-fed  mash,  corn  and  oats, 
middlings  and  scrap ;  mixed  grain,  corn,  oats,  wheat,  and 
barley.  Apparently,  the  difference  in  cost  is  made 
chiefly  by  conditions  of  handling  (and  perhaps  contin- 
uance of  chick  feeds)  rather  than  by  variation  in  actual 
grains  fed.  I  have  given  the  cheapest  and  the  most  ex- 
pensive in  order  to  show  this.  There  are  two  or  three 
advantages  in  a  good  prepared  chick  feed :  it  is  fine,  it 
is  widely  varied  in  composition,  containing  many  differ- 
ent kinds  of  seed ;  it  has  the  right  proportion  of  meat. 
A  poor  chick  feed  has  too  much  grit  at  a  high  price 
and  too  much  millet.  (Neither  is  used  as  much  as  at 
one  time.  The  public  simply  refused  to  be  baited  by 
this  class  of  goods.)  One  feeder,  who  stated  that  'he 
never  had  sickness  or  leg  weakness  among  his  chicks, 
used  a  dry  mash  consisting  of  bran,  meat  scrap,  clover, 
corn  meal,  and  dry  bread,  "  all  they  can  eat,"  wheat 
and  cracked  corn  for  grain,  corn  largely  predominating. 


232  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

Only  two  of  these  growers,  much  to  my  surprise, 
mention  the  use  of  sprouted  oats.  Only  one  mentions 
clover.  I  judge  this  to  mean  that  most  of  them  consider 
free  range  a  necessity,  and  that  they  do  not  need  to 
supply  the  bulky  feeds.  If  chicks  are  to  be  grown  in 
confinement,  the  one  salvation  for  the  grower  is  to  keep 
them  at  work,  which  can  be  best  done  by  burying  grain 
in  the  soil  regularly,  and  putting  it  in  so  deep  that  it  will 
sprout.  I  once  listened  to  the  story  of  a  woman  who 
raised  wonderful  chickens  on  a  city  lot.  She  said  she 
could  not  have  done  it  had  she  not  had  chick  ladders, 
which  they  were  compelled  to  use,  in  various  parts  of 
the  houses  and  runs.  It  seems  to  me  that  it  is  decidedly 
better  for  the  chicks  to  work  for  something  rather  than 
for  the  sake  of  work  alone. 

One  point  in  the  Australian  Competitions  which  makes 
them  so  valuable  to  the  world  at  large  lies  in  the  fact 
that  they  are  consistent  efforts  to  do  things  in  a  way 
that  can  be  followed  by  any  worker  with  poultry.  Only 
in  the  use  of  flocks  smaller  than  are  usually  thought 
profitable  do  they  depart  from  the  path  of  the  common 
man.  The  housing  is  of  the  simplest,  the  feed  cheap 
and  everywhere  obtainable,  the  hens  actually  "  bor- 
rowed "  from  the  workers  of  the  land  for  testing  in 
competition.  Professor  Thompson,  the  conductor  of 
the  tests,  says :  "  the  whole  of  the  tests  have  been 
carried  out  on  plain,  practical  lines  within  reach  of  the 
ordinary  farmer."  The  mash,  mixed  in  winter  with  boil- 
ing water  and  in  summer  with  cold  water,  is  composed 
of  one  fourth  bran  and  three  fourths  "  pollard  "  (which 
Mr.  Purvis  says  means  middlings  in  "American"). 
Twice  a  week,  a  pound  of  boiled  liver  to  ten  hens  is 


t  —  /vw^v  — 

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234  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

minced,  and  with  the  hot  "  soup "  goes  to  form  the 
mash  for  those  days,  when  the  ground  grain  is  added. 
The  birds  are  fed  a  little  more  than  they  will  eat  up 
clean.  Liberal  feeding  is  one  of  the  lessons  of  the 
test ;  also,  according  to  Professor  Thompson :  "  The 
natural  grasses  in  a  run  form  the  greater  proportion 
of  the  feed  consumed  by  fowls.  Consequently,  the 
provision  of  good,  grass  runs  is  half  the  battle  in  poul- 
try farming''  Can  we  assimilate  that  thought  ? 

The  cost  of  production  of  these  eggs  is  the  interesting 
point.  The  181  eggs  per  hen  were  produced  at  a  cost, 
of  the  supplied  feed,  of  $i  each,  which  is  almost  exactly 
6|  cents  a  dozen.  The  profit  above  feed  was  more  than 
twice  the  cost.  Part  of  this  is  offset  by  the  greater  ex- 
pense of  housing  in  pens  of  six.  But,  supposing  that 
one  housed  in  lots  of  25  and  received  an  average  of  but 
100  eggs,  which  is  the  best  that  any  state  in  the  Union 
reports.  The  gain  over  cost  of  feed  would  then  be 
about  44  cents  per  hen.  This  looks  like  penny  wise, 
pound  foolish  in  exaggerated  measure  :  $1.75  in  profit 
lost — if  such  an  anomaly  can  be  !  —  per  hen  would  off- 
set the  greater  cost  of  housing  in  small  numbers,  many 
times  over.  But,  if  it  came  to  a  question  of  labor,  the 
matter  would  again  take  on  another  look  ;  since  labor 
is  the  great  expense,  as  soon  as  it  has  to  be  hired. 
Hens  carried  in  lots  of  six  mean  labor  greatly  increased, 
as  any  one  must  see. 

The  Government  Report  for  the  year  1910,  for  this  en- 
tire country,  covers  the  average  price  received  by  farmers 
on  the  ist  of  the  alternate  months  of  1909,  beginning 
with  February,  and  the  ist  of  each  month  during  1910, 
for  each  state  and  territory.  These  are  also  grouped 


COST  OF  PRODUCING  EGGS,    CHICKS,  AND   FOWLS     235 

into  Divisions,  as  North  Atlantic,  South  Central,  etc. 
From  this  tabulated  list,  I  select  the  figures  for  May,  the 
month  of  lowest  prices  ;  December,  the  month  of  highest 
prices  ;  and  August,  an  intermediate.  February  runs,  in 
general,  about  ten  cents  a  do^en  higher  than  August. 


MAY 


AUGUST 


DECEMBER 


Cts. 

Maine  .     .     .     ;     .     ....  21 

New  Hampshire 23 

Vermont 21 

Massachusetts   ......     .     .     .  25 

Rhode  Island      .     .  '   '.     ."    .     .  22 

Connecticut    .......  23 

New  York 21 

New  Jersey 24 

Pennsylvania 20 

N.  Atlantic  Division  (av.)       .  21.4 

Delaware  ........  21 

Maryland  ........  19 

Virginia 18 

West  Virginia     .     .     »     .     .     .  1 8 

North  Carolina 17 

South  Carolina    .     .     .;     .     •     .  19 

Georgia     .   -V    .     .     .     •     -     •  20 

Florida 22 

S.  Atlantic  Division  (av.)       .  18.6 

Ohio      .     ...  •'  .     .     ».     .     .     .     .  19 

Indiana      .......  ,  .     .     .  19 

Illinois 19 

Michigan  .  *  .  .  ;  .  .  .  19 

Wisconsin   .  .;.,  *••  i  .  .  .  18 

N.  Central  (E.  of  Miss.  R.)  (av.)  18.9 

Minnesota   .  ..,-...'.  .  18 

Iowa  .  .  ;  j  .  -  .J-  ..  1 8 


Cts. 

25 
27 

24 
33 
32 
30 
25 
28 

23 
25.4 

22 

*9 

18 

20 

16 
17 
19 

22 

I8.5 

19 

16 
16 
19 

17 
17.4 

15 


Cts. 
40 

39 
37 
50 
50 
45 
39 
40 

34 

38.4 

33 

32 

28 

29 

24 

27 

29 
3i 
28.3 

3i 

29 

28 

28 

27 

28.9 

27 

25 


236 


THE  BEGINNER  IN   POULTRY 


MAY 

AUGUST 

DECEMBER 

Missouri    

Cts. 
17 

Cts. 
12 

Cts. 

2  r 

North  Dakota     

16 

17 

•"O 
27 

South  Dakota     ... 

17 

T  r 

or 

Nebraska  

17 

"3 

I  "* 

"-5 
2C 

Kansas      

17 

1  j 

1  2 

Z5 

2C 

N.  Central  (W.  of  Miss.  R.)  (av.) 
Kentucky  

174 

18 

J3-9 

^5 
25-3 

2  C 

Tennessee 

17 

i  A 

J5 
26 

Alabama 

16 

T  r 

2  C 

Mississippi 

16 

13 

16 

^5 

27 

Louisiana 

18 

1  7 

•^3 

or 

Texas    . 

16 

1  / 
I  A 

^5 

Oklahoma  

16 

*4 

IJ. 

25 

2C 

Arkansas   ....           . 

16 

16 

*J 

2/1 

S.  Central  Division  (av.)    .     . 
Montana    .... 

16.6 

2C 

14.7 

•3Q 

24.9 

/IQ 

Wyoming  
Colorado   . 

*3 

24 
2  1 

J^ 

28 

2/1 

36 

7  A 

New  Mexico  .                     . 

21 

2"? 

J4 

•27 

Arizona     ...               .     . 

7O 

•^J 

•27 

JJ 

AI 

Utah     .     . 

J^ 

*>o 

JJ 

21 

•27 

Nevada 

12, 

-'j 

•27 

JJ 

AC 

Idaho    . 

J^ 
27 

JJ 
26 

4:) 

7Q 

Washington  ....... 
Oregon 

~J 
24 

27 

28 

27 

jy 

42 

7Q 

California  
Far  Western  (av.)     .... 
United  States  (av.)   .... 

*3 

22 
22.5 

18.6 

26 
26.3 
17-6 

3V 
44 
40.6 
29 

The  manager  of  one  of  our  systems  of  branch  farms, 
linked  to  a  hatching  and  selling  center,  states  that  one 
of  the  reasons  for  the  success  of  this  system  is  that  they 
reverse  the  usual  process,  so  that  by  virtue  of  their 


COST  OF  PRODUCING  EGGS,   CHICKS,  AND   FOWLS    237 

united  strength  and  their  organized  plan  of  selling,  they 
buy  at  wholesale  and  sell  at  retail. 

Suppose,  now,  that  it  is  true,  as  some  say,  that  "  pro- 
cessed oats "  cost  only  ten  cents  a  bushel.  Estimate 
that  three  bushels  of  it  will  go  as  far  as  one  bushel  of 
oats  not  processed.  Add  25  cents  a  year  for  beef  scrap, 
and,  if  liberally  minded,  10  cents  more  for  grit,  shell,  and 
charcoal,  all  of  which  are  cheap  when  bought  by  the 
hundred.  To  this  you  may  add  just  what  you  please 
in  the  way  of  expense  for  more  variety.  (Mr.  Briggs, 
of  processed  oats  fame,  says  that  he  has  kept  hens  for 
six  months  at  a  time  on  nothing  but  beef  scrap  and 
processed  oats  for  feed,  with  most  excellent  results ; 
though  he  does  not  recommend  this  as  being  the  best 
way.)  What  total  do  you  get  for  a  year's  feed  per  hen  ? 

What  I  am  trying  to  get  at  is,  how  much  are  you, 
friend  Beginner,  going  to  let  your  eggs  cost  you  ?  Shall 
it  be  eighteen  cents  a  dozen  ?  Shall  it  be  fifteen?  Four- 
teen cents  ?  Twelve  ?  Eight  ?  Can  you  get  it  lower 
still  ?  What  is  your  caliber  ?  What  your  aim  ?  It  is 
your  problem.  The  Utah  Station  has  produced  eggs 
for  52  cents  per  hen,  cost  of  feed  for  a  full  year.  For 
how  much  less,  I  do  not  know.  But,  at  52  cents,  with 
a  yield  of  1 50,  the  feed  cost  of  the  eggs  would  be  about 
four  and  one  third  cents  a  dozen.  Some  of  the  hens  laid 
more.  I  do  not  remember  the  average,  if  it  was  given, 
and  my  figure  of  1 50  is  arbitrary.  We  need  to  remember 
that  not  all,  by  any  means,  can  make  their  hens  reach 
this  average.  . 

We  have  allowed  above,  on  sprouted  oats  and  beef 
scrap,  with  the  digesters,  a  total  of  about  75  cents  per 
hen.  Remembering  that  the  sponsor  of  this  system 


238  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

says  that  it  is  easy  to  get  2OO-egg-average  layers  on  this 
feed,  look  at  this  presumptive  cost.  It  comes  out  in  a 
fraction,  and  you  don't  like  fractions  of  a  cent  any 
better  than  I  do ;  we  will  say,  then,  that  it  is  certainly 
less  than  five  cents  a  dozen  —  this  estimated  cost  of 
producing  eggs.  Now,  when  you  figure  out  on  paper 
the  cost  or  the  profits  of  your  poultry,  are  you  going 
to  figure  on  a  basis  of  five  cents,  or  of  eighteen  cents  a 
dozen  ?  And,  if  you  figure  on  five  cents  a  dozen,  are 
you  going  to  make  good  ?  There  are  those  who  testify 
that  it  can  be  done  ;  they  know  it,  they  say,  because 
they  do  it.  But,  let  me  warn  you  that  the  average  pro- 
ducer's cost  for  eggs  —  setting  aside  those  raised  on  the 
farm,  which  it  has  been  difficult  to  get  any  kind  of 
figures  on — comes  nearer  eighteen  than  three  !  Is  it  not 
pertinent  to  ask,  "  Why  ?  "  Is  it  not  more  than  perti- 
nent for  you  to  consider  gravely  which  lot  of  poultry 
raisers  you  will  foregather  with  ? 

The  Department  of  Cooperation  of  the  Ohio  Experi- 
ment Station  is  reported  early  in  1912  as  having  sent  out 
a  Bulletin  on  this  very  matter,  a  "  preliminary,"  but  cov- 
ering test  work  for  two  years  or  more,  among  farmers 
and  others.  These  men  returned  reports,  but  received 
no  advice  as  to  how  to  handle  their  flocks.  Time  occu- 
pied in  handling  was  computed  with  care,  and  figured  on 
the  basis  of  the  value  of  a  man's  time.  Thirty-six  coun- 
ties were  represented,  ten  pure  breeds  and  four  mixed 
flocks.  Eighteen  were  farm  flocks,  averaging  121  hens 
and  83  eggs  per  bird.  The  feed  cost  of  these  farm  flocks 
averaged  59  cents,  or  nearly  eight  and  one  half  cents  per 
dozen  ;  but  the  lowest  report  was  5  cents  and  the  highest 
about  1 1  cents  per  dozen.  The  labor  cost  was  three  cents 


COST  OF  PRODUCING  EGGS,   CHICKS,  AND   FOWLS    239 

per  hen  per  year,  on  the  farms.  The  average  income  from 
the  farm  hens  was  $1.80.  The  average  profit  was  $1.18. 
The  general  average  of  the  town  flocks  was  89  eggs, 
but  one  flock  gave  an  average  of  145.  The  feed  cost 
ranged  from  63  cents  to  $2.43  per  hen.  Four  of  the 
thirteen  town  flocks  showed  deficits,  ranging  from  36 
cents  to  93  cents. 


Farm  Hopper  Feeding  and  Watering  Devices.     Keeping  the  Cost  Down 

Now,  the  cost  of  producing  chicks.  This  depends, 
first,  on  the  value  of  the  eggs  which  you  put  to  jncuba- 
tion,  and  the  number  which  you  must  reckon  for  produc- 
ing each  mature  layer.  In  foreign  countries,  at  the  cen- 
tral hatcheries,  it  is  said  that  the  operators  will  take  a 
customer's  eggs,  hatch  them,  and  return  him  three  chicks 
for  each  four  eggs,  depending  for  their  profit  on  the 
number  of  chicks  above  a  75  per  cent  hatch  which  their 
methods  return  them.  In  this  country,  it  has  been  said 
by  those  who  are  considered  reliable  and  well  posted 
that  it  takes  four  eggs,  on  the  average,  to  produce  one 
chick.  That  is,  the  initial  average  cost  of  a  chick,  in 


240  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

this  country,  assuming  that  eggs  are  of  the  same  price,  is 
over  three  times  as  high  as  it  is  in,  say,  China  or  Egypt. 
Mr.  Hastings  thinks  we  shall  cut  down  that  cost  when 
we  reach  the  stage  of  many  central  mammoth  hatcheries 
for  general  hatching.  In  the  meantime,  how  is  the 
Beginner,  —  how  are  YOU  to  reduce  this  initial  cost  ?  If 
you  are  in  the  East,  and  eggs  average  toward  40  cents 
a  dozen  the  year  around,  can  you  afford  this  inexcusable 
high  initial  cost?  This  figures  up  13  cents  per  chick, 
just  for  the  eggs  to  hatch  it,  before  we  have  allowed  for 
any  loss  in  brooding,  for  accidents,  etc.  Here  is  a  mar- 
gin of  about  nine  cents  per  chick  which  ought,  in  some 
way,  to  be  turned  from  the  expense  into  the  profit  col- 
umn. I  challenge  you  squarely  :  are  you  the  man  to  do 
it?  Or,  are  you  a  woman,  and  will  assist  at  such  a 
slaughter  of  the  innocents  ? 

Now,  here  comes  Mr.  Briggs,  who  claims  to  be  one  of 
the  five  of  the  successful  whom  he  counts  in  each  hun- 
dred business  poultry  raisers,  and  says  that  sprouted  oats 
has  placed  him  in  this  enviable  position  of  being  one  of 
the  five,  and  that  it  will  place  any  one  within  that 
charmed  group. 

A  few  days  before  this  writing,  I  saw  some  figures 
from  a  man  who  claimed  to  have  much  experience  with 
poultry  raising  on  the  large  commercial  scale.  He  said: 
"  We  are  satisfied  with  a  death  rate  of  1 5  to  20  per  cent, 
when  thousands  are  raised  under  artificial  methods,  and 
our  largest  plants  do  not  get  under  that."  This  problem, 
of  how  to  lower  the  loss  margin,  comes  to  the  fore  again 
and  again,  no  matter  what  the  branch  of  work.  We 
have  too  much  common  sense  to  believe  that  we  can 
handle  living  things  with  as  close  a  margin  as  may  do 


COST  OF  PRODUCING   EGGS,  CHICKS,  AND   FOWLS    241 

for  mechanical  problems  ;  but,  let  us  get  it  deep  into  our 
consciousness  that  reduced  loss  margins  are  clear  gain. 
I  think  the  most  practical  way  to  study  this  question  of 
necessary  cost  of  production  is  to  fix  the  mind  continually 
on  the  two  extremes  ;  to  find  out,  from  every  available 
source,  the  costs  of  production  as  they  really  are ;  not 
to  rest  till  we  find  out  why  they  are  so,  and  then  to  aim 
directly  at  the  lower  figures,  as  our  own  goal. 

Referring  once  more  to  the  thought  that  it  is  the  best 
business  men  who  are  the  most  successful  with  poultry, 
let  us  consider  the  signs  of  this  which  appear  in  the 
periodical  literature  of  present-day  poultry.  Do  not  let 
us  think  that  this  is  not  germane  because  the  writers  are 
fanciers,  while  the  great  majority  of  poultry  raisers,  and 
therefore,  doubtless,  of  Beginners,  are  not.  It  is  the 
principle  underlying  their  method  which  I  want  to 
ferret  out,  stating  it  so  that  it  can  be  used  by  any 
poultry  raiser. 

There  are  two  names,  among  the  newer  poultry  ad- 
vertisers of  the  day,  which  stand  out  above  all  others. 
They  take  large  space  in  all  the  better  poultry  periodicals, 
to  be  sure ;  but  this,  of  itself,  does  not  explain  their  suc- 
cess. Men  and  firms  longer  in  the  business,  fearing 
their  competition,  have  done  the  same  thing ;  yet  the 
new  men  have  distanced  them.  One  of  them  keeps  be- 
fore the  public  the  thought  of  his  fair  and  systematic 
business  methods.  The  other  spends  his  strength  in 
making  startling  statements,  or  making  his  advertise- 
ments interesting.  Both  make  considerable  of  the  fact 
that  they  look  out  for  customers'  interests.  One  says, 
"  We  are  selling  on  honor  and  giving  results  that  more 
than  satisfy  our  customers."  The  other  says  :  "  I  made 

R 


242  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

so  many  thousands  of  dollars  net  profit  in  one  year. 
My  farm  and  books  are  open  to  inspection  to  any  State 
Poultry  Experimental  Station.  If  your  Station  doesn't 
find  the  above  statements  true,  I'll  donate  $1000  in  cash 
to  your  Institute."  This  last  bids  for  notice  by  offering 
to  tell  how  he  made  $3600  in  one  season  from  30  hens 
"  by  feeding  the  scraps  from  my  table  three  times  a  day." 
Wouldn't  YOU  look  up  a  man  like  that,  whether  you  be- 
lieved his  claim  or  not  ?  That  is  the  way  human  nature 
works.  If  he  promised  to  tell  you  how  he  bred  his  big 
egg-laying  strain,  how  he  raised  ninety-eight  chicks  out 
of  a  hundred,  etc.,  and  offered  scores  of  testimonials 
from  customers  supporting  what  he  said,  wouldn't  you 
be  interested  in  spite  of  yourself  ?  If  he  worked  with 
might  and  main  to  make  the  breed  popular  and  much 
talked  of,  as  well  as  for  his  own  business,  wouldn't  you 
want  to  get  the  benefits  of  the  big  crumbs  that  fall  from 
his  advertising  table  ?  He  does  all  these  tilings.  At  one 
time,  he  took  large  advertising  space  just  telling  how 
many  advertisers  of  his  breed  appeared  in  recent  issues, 
and  the  proportion  that  were  of  his  own  strain.  Don't 
you  see  how  this  helps  every  man  along  the  line,  from 
the  biggest  advertiser  to  the  latest  timorous  would-be  ? 

Suppose  that  he  wrote  letters  to  the  editors  of  in- 
fluential papers,  telling  always  how  good  business  was, 
how  big  prices  he  was  getting,  how  people  begged  for 
eggs  from  his, strain,  and  how  his  customers,  too,  were 
getting  a  full  share  of  his  "  boom."  Would  you  not  feel 
that  Fate  had  been  kind  in  turning  you  toward  him  and 
his  stock?  Wouldn't  jjw/,  too,  write  him  an  enthusiastic 
letter,  which  would  turn  up  later  as  a  testimonial  for  him 
and  an  advertisement  for  you,  and  not  cost  you  more 


COST  OF  PRODUCING  EGGS,   CHICKS,  AND   FOWLS     243 

than  the  postage  and  paper  ?  Human  nature  works 
tJiat  way,  let  me  repeat ! 

Now,  the  heart  of  this  can  be  applied  to  work  with 
utility  poultry,  in  degree.  First,  the  good  business  sense 
which  selects  a  good  breed,  and  which  raises  the  very 
best  kind  of  stock  that  can  be  raised,  from  the  best 
strain  for  the  purpose.  Then,  the  sizing  up  of  human 
nature,  studying  what  will  appeal  to  it,  furnishing  just 
that  product.  Then,  making  much  of  telling  your  public 
tJiat  you  have  exactly  what  they  want,  of  the  best  kind 
and  quality. 

Fancy  stock  has  its  seasons.  Its  raisers  like  to  work 
off  all  they  can  in  the  fall,  to  avoid  housing  and  feeding 
expense.  The  winter  months,  in  such  case,  will  be 
largely  barren  of  trade.  Does  the  big  advertiser  there- 
fore withdraw  his  advertisement  ?  Not  at  all :  he  talks 
all  the  year;  he  pours  out  facts,  arguments,  what-not. 
If  he  has  nothing  else  to  say,  he  will  use  his  space  in 
telling  the  world  that  he  is  all  sold  out,  but  that  another 
season  he  will  do  more  and  better. 

Beside  this,  put  the  attitude  of  the  hesitating  egg  raiser 
who  just  once  puts  a  timid  advertisement  into  his  local 
weekly,  telling  people  he  has  such  and  such  goods,  and, 
because  the  town  doesn't  fall  over  itself  to  hunt  him  up, 
henceforth  tells  all  his  personal  friends  that  advertising 
is  but  throwing  money  away !  This  is  the  way  human 
nature  works,  too.  A  man  must  have  trained  business 
instincts  before  he  can  put  money  in  a  hopper  and  see 
it  run  away  from  him,  in  firm  faith  that  it  will  eventually 
come  traipsing  back,  bringing  much  more  with  it.  How 
else  could  a  firm  pay  $4000  a  page  to  advertise  five-cent 
chewing  gum  ?  Men  do  these  things  and  make  fortunes. 


XX 

STUDYING  EGGS 

Market  Gradings — The  Most  Offensive  Variation  in  Eggs 
—  Cornell  Demonstration  Grading  —  The  Low  Grades 
—  Abnormal  Eggs — Inflammations  —  Breeds  classed 
as  to  Color  of  Eggs  —  Shell  Textures  and  Variations  — 
The  Ideal  Egg  — Grading  by  Selection  of  Hatching 
Eggs  —  Grading  and  Extra  Price. 

THE  Cornell  Station,  among  its  exhibits  at  Fairs  and 
Poultry  Shows,  carries  a  grading  table  fitted  with  pockets 
running  lengthwise  of  its  surface,  of  such  shape  that 
they  hold  the  eggs  securely,  when  the  table  is  almost  on 
edge.  This  brings  the  student  of  eggs  face  to  face  with 
the  contents  of  every  egg  in  a  crateful.  The  eggs  are 
bought  in  the  open  market  and  when  graded  show  clearly 
the  various  shapes,  colors,  and  sizes  which  pertain  to 
the  market  eggs  as  commonly  offered  by  the  farm 
producer. 

Eggs  may  be  placed  roughly  in  three  or  four  grades, 
it  may  be ;  or,  as  in  New  York  markets,  there  may  be 
twice  as  many  grades,  or  even  more.  Producers  in  gen- 
eral are  quite  free  in  their  expression  of  the  sense  of  in- 
justice which  they  feel  is  done  them,  by  the  fact  that 
the  middlemen,  somewhere  along  the  line,  advance  the 
price  so  much,  that  out  of  the  dollar  which  the  consumer 
may  pay  the  producer  gets,  it  may  be  only  forty  cents, 
more  or  less.  We  must  all  allow  that  if  the  middleman 
takes  the  product  off  our  hands,  pays  transportation, 
commissions,  candling,  etc.,  and  stands  possible  (and 

244 


STUDYING  EGGS  245 

very  probable)  losses,  he  must  be  reimbursed  for  these, 
and  must  also  have  a  fair  margin  of  profit.  This  he 
takes  as  long  as  he  stays  in  business,  and  the  day  that 
he  is  compelled  to  go  out  of  business  is  usually  a  poor 
day  for  the  average  producer.  But  in  the  matter  of 
eggs,  probably  the  largest  item  of  difference  between 
what  he  pays  the  producer  and  what  he  receives  comes 
from  his  doing  that  which  the  producer  either  will  not 
bother  with,  or  else  which  he  finds  impracticable,  be- 
cause his  product  is  small  in  volume.  There  is  a  way  in 
which  he  might  do  his  grading,  simply,  easily,  effectively, 
which  I  will  speak  of  later.  Since  he  does  not  as  yet 
ordinarily  follow  this  method,  we  will  look  at  the  eggs 
as  they  actually  do  vary  when  offered  to  the  market  of 
to-day. 

Market  eggs  do  vary  much  in  shape,  in  size,  in  color, 
in  texture,  and  surface  of  shell.  The  critical  eye  detects 
most  quickly,  in  my  opinion,  a  variation  in  size.  This  is 
a  very  offensive  variation  to  the  buyer  critic.  A  lot  of 
eggs  would  much  better  be  all  of  fair  to  good  size,  than 
to  contain  a  few  overlarge  specimens,  which  will  make 
all  the  rest  look  unduly  small.  Next  in  importance  to 
variations  in  size  may  be  placed  variations  in  shape.  I 
place  these  before  variations  in  color  (knowing  that 
some  will  differ  with  me),  because  some  shapes  are  so 
very  far  from  normal  as  to  be  notably  in  themselves  un- 
attractive (and  useless),  while  an  egg  may  be  almost  any 
tint  in  the  wide  range  from  chalk-white  to  "  seal  brown  " 
without  being  unattractive,  except  to  the  prejudiced 
buyer.  Markets  and  poultry  writers  do  sometimes  suc- 
ceed in  prejudicing  buyers  against  certain  colors,  but 
ordinarily  the  markets  have  to  take  all  the  eggs  offered 


246  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

during  the  entire  year.  This  insures  that  color  in  itself 
does  not  count  much,  except  in  the  more  critical  markets. 
It  is  the  pell-mell,  "  common  mixed  "  look  given  by  the 
contrast  between  eggs  of  a  dozen  shades  all  in  one  con- 
tainer, which  makes  the  real  "  color  line." 

On  the  Cornell  grading  table  we  would  find  one  row 
of  eggs  of  snowy  whiteness  and  of  perfect  shape  and 
size.  The  second  might  contain  eggs  equally  white,  but 
of  varied  shapes  ;  the  third  eggs  strictly  white,  but  not 
of  good  size.  Here  are  three  grades  in  white  eggs. 

Under  brown  eggs  we  would  find  browns  of  large  size, 
perfect  shape,  and  most  attractive  color  ;  those  of  smaller 
size,  but  perfect  color  and  shape ;  also  those  of  ab- 
normal shape.  In  addition  to  this,  the  variation  in 
shade  among  brown  eggs  allows  for  many  grades 
for  color ;  more  or  less,  according  to  the  critical  spirit 
of  the  market  or  the  grader.  "  Candling  "  is  a  matter 
of  exceeding  importance  to  the  middleman,  especially 
during  the  warm  season,  inasmuch  as  it  announces 
the  internal  condition  of  the  egg  to  the  handler.  It  is  per- 
formed by  holding  the  egg  between  a  strong  electric 
light  and  the  eye,  and  rotating  it.  Expert  candlers  work 
with  extreme  rapidity  and  come  to  have  an  almost  un- 
canny power  of  determining  qualities.  The  producer 
can  candle  eggs  by  the  use  of  an  egg  tester,  or  it  can  be 
done  in  any  dark,  closet  where  bright  sunshine  passes 
through  a  knot  hole.  The  only  requirement  is  that  strong 
light  shall  pass  through  the  egg,  while  no  other  light 
touches  it.  Clever  workers  become  so  skillful  that  they 
can  test  eggs  by  dropping  them  into  the  V  between 
thumb  and  forefinger  and  placing  the  other  hand 
above  the  egg.  This,  however,  would  scarcely  detect 


STUDYING  EGGS  247 

slight  changes  in  the  contents.  There  is  a  grading  of 
defective  eggs  into  "  checks,"  "  dirties,"  and  "  rots  and 
spots."  "  Checks  "  may  be  perfectly  good,  except  for  a 
crack  in  the  shell.  Bakers  might  be  glad  to  get  them 
for  immediate  use  at  a  reduced  price.  "  Dirties  "  may 
also  be  good  if  the  soiling  comes  from  a  grass  or  hay  stain, 
or  even  from  excrement,  if  it  has  not  lain  long  on  the 
egg.  "  Rots  and  spots  "  should  never  be  used  for  food, 
although  the  inspectors  have  been  obliged  to  destroy 
many  thousands  of  dozens  of  such  eggs  which  had  been 
sold  to  manufacturers  of  table  delicacies  ! 

Beyond  the  study  of  eggs  in  relation  to  grading,  there 
is  a  study  of  them  which  is  of  immediate  and  great  use 
to  the  beginner.  If  this  study  can  be  made  before  he 
begins  his  work  with  poultry  at  all,  he  will  have  skipped 


Left,  Two-Ounce  Hens'  Eggs ;  Right,  One  and  One-half-Ounce  Pullets'  Eggs. 
Unsalable  in  General  Market 

several  steps  in  the  upward  path.  Most  patent  and  try- 
ing in  a  large  basket  of  eggs,  just  as  they  come  from  the 
ordinary  farm  hennery,  are  the  wide  abnormalities  in 
shape  and  size.  These,  while  they  may  differ  widely 
from  the  best  or  "  standard  "  shape,  are  always  compara- 
tively few  in  number,  and  on  a  careful  small  plant  are 


248  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

generally  reserved  for  household  use  in  the  home  family. 
There  is  always  a  cause  for  these  extreme  abnormalities 
in  shape  and  size.  This  cause  may  be  so  obscure  that 
one  may  not  point  to  it  definitely,  but  it  is  almost  sure  to 
be  some  abnormal  condition  of  the  organs  of  reproduc- 
tion in  the  female.  It  may  be  only  an  irritated  state,  or 
it  may  be  more  serious  inflammation  or  other  trouble 
with  the  egg  tract.  But  the  abnormally  shaped  egg  is 
proof  of  a  condition  which  needs  attention.  The  egg 
tract  lies  packed  closely  within  the  abdomen  of  the 
female  fowl ;  it  has  many  folds  and  turnings,  through 
all  of  which  the  egg  must  pass  on  its  way  to  exclusion, 
and  during  which  passage  it  must  increase  constantly  in 
size,  and  must  receive  several  layers  of  white  (albumen) 
and  a  tough  membranous  skin  and  shell.  These  are 
attained  in  regular  order,  and  the  process  is  one  requir- 
ing time.  It  may  be  two  weeks,  more  or  less,  between 
the  detachment  of  one  shining,  pinkish  yellow  bead  or 
pellet  from  the  embryo  egg  cluster  and  its  appearance 
in  the  basket  of  the  egg  gatherer  some  fortunate  night. 
The  soft  tract,  full  of  blood  vessels,  through  which  it 
must  pass  on  its  journey  toward  daylight,  is  many  inches 
long,  and  is  somewhat  closely  surrounded  by  the  intes- 
tinal tract  and  other  internal  organs.  There  must  be 
some  spare  room  for  the  developing  eggs,  and  the 
heavier  the  laying,  the  more  crowded  must  be  the  ab- 
dominal space.  Males  are  often  clumsy  or  rough  in 
their  service,  and  may  injure  the  laying  fowl  with  her 
burden  of  eggs.  Again  there  may  be  inflammation  of 
liver  or  other  organ,  and  this  seems  to  communicate 
itself  to  the  cluster  of  egglets  awaiting  their  turn  for 
development.  At  times  the  tiny  yolks  are  found  virtu- 


STUDYING  EGGS  249 

ally  cooked  by  the  heat  of  the  adjacent  inflammations. 
These  yolks,  abnormal  in  condition,  must  set  up  and 
continue  irritation.  Strangely  enough,  a  fowl  may 
continue  to  produce  eggs  through  months  after  some 
wrong  condition  has  been  induced.  Even  too  much 
surplus  fat  may  crowd  the  eggs,  and  possibly  be  re- 
sponsible for  eggs  misshapen.  When  they  come  to 
exclusion,  abnormal  eggs  may  be  twice  as  large  as  the 
average,  and  increased  in  proportional  length.  They 
may  be  as  small  as  pigeons'  eggs,  or  they  may  be 
flattened  into  grotesque  shapes,  or  be  produced  with  a 
shell  not  closed  at  one  end,  and  having  a  small  sac  of 
skin,  containing  albumen,  as  an  added  annex.  They 
may  be  produced  with  very  poor,  porous,  soft,  thin, 
or  brittle  shells,  or  they  may  be  rushed  into  the  world 
lacking  the  shell,  which  is  usually  the  last  addition  to 
the  perfect  egg.  All  such  are  a  source  of  loss  to  the 
large  market  producer. 

Often,  such  products  may  mean  only  that  the  hen  is 
too  fat.  They  may  mean  that  the  food  is  too  stimulat- 
ing ;  in  other  words,  that  the  owner  is  too  greedy  for  a 
big  product,  and  is  feeding,  it  may  be,  too  much  meat 
with  this  end  in  view ;  or,  possibly,  some  "  egg  food  "  or 
"  egg  tonic  "  which  produces  trouble  with  the  egg  or- 
gans. The  "  double-yolked  "  egg,  which  is  simply  two 
eggs  within  one  shell,  is  pretty  sure  proof  of  a  too  hur- 
ried process,  in  which  the  second  egg  perhaps  follows 
the  first  too  closely  for  all  the  steps  of  the  process  to  be 
taken  in  their  regular  order. 

But  a  close  study  of  even  those  eggs  which  we  would 
ordinarily  class  as  "  normal,"  because  they  do  not  differ 
radically  from  the  type,  will  show  us  that  much  needs  to 


250  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

be  done  to  make  them  approach  that  evenness  of  grade 
which  is  the  market  ideal.  I  have  spoken  in  a  rather 
incidental  way  of  the  variation  in  color.  All  who  buy 
or  use  eggs  know  this.  The  breed  classes  may  be 
grouped  as  to  color  of  eggs,  though  there  are  many 
tones  to  the  brown.  The  Asiatics  are  brown  egg  breeds, 
and  the  Americans,  having  some  Asiatic  blood,  have  in- 
herited the  color  in  the  egg.  The  Hamburgs,  Polish, 
Houdans,  and  Mediterranean  breeds  lay  white  eggs. 
Generally,  the  small  or  more  active  birds  with  white  ear 
lobes  comprise  the  white  egg  breeds. 

Besides  variation  in  size,  color,  and  shape,  eggs  are 
found  to  vary  in  thickness  and  surface  of  the  shell,  and 
in  its  actual  texture.  By  this  last  I  mean  that  some 
shells  are  hard  and  firm,  and  fine  grained,  others  being 
too  porous  and  often  brittle.  Sometimes,  a  bird,  seem- 
ingly having  taken  a  surplus  of  lime,  deposits  some  of 
it  on  the  surface  as  roughness,  often  raised  into  warts. 
All  such  variations  lessen  the  attractiveness  of  the  egg, 
and  porosity  of  shell  is  very  likely  to  point  toward  some 
lack  in  feeding  or  other  unfavorable  condition,  which 
will  make  the  eggs  uncertain  in  hatchability. 

There  is  one  variation  in  the  outward  appearance  of 
eggs,  which,  while  it  detracts  from  their  handsome  ap- 
pearance, is  not  of  sufficient  importance  to  cause  as 
much  apprehension  as  it  often  does.  This  is  a  rough- 
ish  or  thickened  band  or  ridge  around  the  "  waist "  of 
the  egg.  It  is  perhaps  caused  by  an  overlapping  of 
shell  at  this  point  when  it  is  deposited,  and  gives  the 
shell  the  appearance  of  being  pieced  together.  Some 
throw  out  all  such  eggs  when  selecting  for  incubation, 
on  the  assumption  that  such  eggs  will  not  hatch  well. 


STUDYING  EGGS  251 

I  have  never  yet  been  able  to  prove  that  these  hatched 
less  well  than  the  more  normal  shells.  Some  hens  have 
a  habit  of  laying  such  eggs,  and  some  breeds,  or 
strains  even,  produce  so  many  that  it  seems  to  have  be- 
come almost  a  fixed  habit  with  them.  One  year,  I 
bought  several  sittings  of  eggs  for  hatching  at  five  dol- 
lars per  sitting,  of  which  nearly  every  egg  in  the  lot 
showed  this  characteristic,  though  otherwise  hard  and 
glossy.  The  smooth,  good-sized,  glossy  egg  is  the  ideal 
—  two  ounces  being  considered  the  minimum  below 
which  eggs  should  not  fall  in  weight.  As  to  the  shape, 
we  have  coined  a  word  "ovoid,"  which  makes  the  egg 
shape  a  distinctive  term  used  to  enlighten  students  in 
other  lines  of  work.  To  define  "  ovoid  "  itself,  other 
than  to  say  it  means  egg  shaped,  is  not  so  easy  —  Web- 
ster's Dictionary  does  not  even  attempt  it,  probably  be- 
cause it  is  supposed  that  all  know  what  "egg  shaped  " 
is.  Yet  the  variations. in  shape  of  eggs  are  endless,  be- 
tween the  bounds  of  the  near  circle  and  the  long  ellipse. 
The  real  "  ovoid  "  shape  is  large  at  one  end,  and  gradu- 
ally narrowing  to  the  other  end,  which  is,  in  a  good 
specimen,  about  one  half  as  thick  as  the  broader  end. 

Although  an  egg  with  some  natural  gloss  is  the  most 
beautiful  egg  known,  there  is  an  appearance  which  must 
also  be  described  as  glossy,  which  does  not  belong  to  a 
fresh  egg.  This  is  when  the  egg  has  been  incubated, 
under  a  hen,  for  some  time ;  but  this  is  a  different  gloss. 
The  egg  feels  unnaturally  smooth,  and  has  not  thefres/i 
bloom  of  a  glossy  new-laid  egg. 

There  are  very  many  hens  which  never  lay  glossy 
eggs.  This,  too,  I  think,  becomes  in  many  instances  a 
matter  of  strain  —  certain  strains  of  Brown  Leghorns, 


252  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

of  Wyandottes,  and,  I  think,  some  White  Leghorns  lay, 
chiefly,  eggs  that  are  lacking  in  natural  gloss. 

Now  let  us  go  back  for  a  minute  to  the  thought  with 
which  this  chapter  started,  the  grading  of  eggs.  Un- 
questionably, it  means  a  great  deal  of  work  to  grade  lots 
of  "  common  mixed  "  eggs.  But,  if  this  seems  scarcely 
practicable  to  the  small  gatherer,  we  may  look  at  an- 
other method  which  is  thoroughly  practicable.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  "  common  mixed  "  eggs  are  chiefly 
the  output  of  common  mixed  fowls.  To  raise  fowls  of 
one  breed  only  is  to  cut  off,  by  this  one  action,  much  of 
the  necessity  for  color  grading.  Other  gradings  will 
still  have  to  be  made,  such  as  for  shape  and  size,  and  in 
the  case  of  brown  egg  breeds  there  is  still  much  varia- 
tion in  tint.  But  selection  of  the  most  nearly  ideal  eggs 
for  incubation  will  be  more  effective  than  any  other 
plan  of  "grading."  The  fancier  cannot  always  do  this, 
as  it  may  chance  that  his  best  hens,  from  a  Standard 
point  of  view,  lay  the  poorest  eggs  from  the  market 
grade  view.  But  the  egg  fancier  can  do  it  to  a  very 
great  degree.  He  is  first  to  select  his  breeders  from 
the  best  and  most  uniform  layers,  then  from  the  eggs 
of  these  he  again  selects  for  incubation  the  specimens 
most  ideal  in  every  respect.  Thus  he  will  soon  obviate 
most  of  the  necessity  for  actual  grading  of  market  lots. 
In  selling  through  a  commission  merchant,  he  would 
then  gain  several  cents  extra  price  per  dozen,  which 
would  demonstrate  to  him  very  quickly  the  value  of 
grading. 

One  who  has  not  seen  the  general  market  offerings 
can  hardly  imagine  the  poor  appearance  and  small  size 
of  many  of  these.  I  once  saw  the  receipts  and  letters 


STUDYING  EGGS  253 

from  a  New  York  commission  merchant  who  was  han- 
dling the  eggs  from  a  certain  farm  which  had  introduced 
many  modern  methods.  He  spoke  especially  of  the  ex- 
tra size  and  quality  of  the  eggs  from  this  farm.  I  saw 
also  some  of  the  eggs.  They  were  all  brown,  but  not 
graded  at  all  for  color,  and  they  did  not  seem  to  me  to 
be  extra  large.  What  would  be  the  happy  state  of 
mind  of  such  a  middleman  could  he  receive  eggs  fully 
graded  to  size,  shape,  and  color  ? 


XXI 


THE  FIELD  OF  THE  AMERICAN  STAND- 
ARD OF  PERFECTION,  AND  THE  ASSO- 
CIATION 

The  Standard  Necessary  —  Membership  in  the  American 
Poultry  Association  —  "Faking"  and  the  Standard  - 
The  Glossary  —  Instructions  to  Judges  — Variety  De- 
scriptions —  American  Poultry  Association  Constitution 
and  By-laws  —  A  Powerful  Body  —  Proposed  Work 
for  the  American  Poultry  Association — Experimental 
Work  —  Proposed  Committee  on  Claims  —  Systematic 
Work  —  Many  Women  Members  —  Movement  for  a 
Women's  Branch 

THE  American  Standard  of  Perfection  is  copyrighted, 
and  quotations  of  any  length  are  not  permitted.  The 
Breeder  who  would  raise  fancy  stock  can  no  more  do 
without  the  standard  for  his  breed  than  he  can  do  with- 
out other  tools  and  appliances.  But,  because  such  may 
like  to  know  in  advance  just  what  they  are  giving  their 
$1.50  for,  and  because  those  who  do  not  care  to  go  into 
the  work  of  the  fancy  may,  nevertheless,  have  a  lively 
curiosity  about  it,  some  resume  of  the  contents  of  "  The 
Standard  "  will  here  be  given. 

The  American  Poultry  Association,  which  consists  of 
all  the  poultrymen  of  the  country  who  can  see  benefit  in 
joining  it,  and  who  can  also  find  the  $10  which  it  costs  to 
become  a  member  —  membership  is  for  life  —  allows 
no  shows  to  be  given  under  its  auspices  unless  they 
work  strictly  under  its  rules.  These  rules,  and  de- 

254 


THE  AMERICAN  STANDARD   OF  PERFECTION    255 


Styles  of  Feather  Marking :  Below,  Penciled  ;  Above,  at  Left,  Stippled ;  at 
Right,  Hackle  Feathers,  Which  But  Faintly  Show  White  Lacing.  The 
Standard  of  Perfection  Requires  These  Markings  on  Some  Breeds 


256  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

mands,  down  to  the  color  of  the  eye,  the  perk  of  the 
tail  or  the  feather,  or  the  bit  of  down  or  stub  on  the  leg  of 
a  specimen,  are  definite,  detailed,  and  imperative.  Ex- 
hibitors and  judges  alike  are  expected  to  obey  them, 
under  penalty  for  failure  which  may  amount  to  the 
judge  losing  his  job  or  the  exhibitor  losing  his  member- 
ship in  the  American  Poultry  Association,  if  he  have 
one ;  or  his  reputation,  or  both. 

The  Association,  as  now  conducted,  has  Branches  all 
over  the  United  States  and  Canada;  which  Branches 
may  consist  of  one  state,  or  of  a  group  of  states.  There 
are  also  District  Branches,  and  local  Associations  may 
join,  under  certain  rules. 

The  matter  comprising  the  volume  known  as  "The 
Standard  of  Perfection "  begins  with  a  warning,  fol- 
lowed by  two  introductions,  and  a  two-page  address  "  to 
the  Poultry  Associations  of  America."  Exhibitions 
necessarily  presuppose  judging  of  birds,  and  the  local 
Associations  are  asked  by  the  American  Poultry  Associ- 
ation to  choose,  as  judges,  preferably,  those  who  are 
members  of  the  American  Poultry  Association.  Under 
the  rules,  a  local  Association  cannot  enter  any  protest  in 
case  of  a  dispute  about  the  placing  of  awards,  except 
when  it  appears  that  the  judge  has  been  dishonest, 
ignorant,  or  careless.  It  is  stated  that  any  exhibitor 
found  to  have  shown  "  faked  birds  "  shall  lose  his  right 
to  compete,  and  must  forfeit  any  prize  that  his  fowls 
had  been  awarded  before  the  deceit  was  discovered. 
Inasmuch  as  the  word  "  faking  "  now  has  a  standing  as 
a  term  used  by  judges  and  carefully  defined  in  the 
Standard  of  Perfection,  the  acts  which  it  represents 
should  now  become  less  frequent,  and  more  possible  of 


THE  AMERICAN  STANDARD   OF  PERFECTION    257 

punishment  than  they  were  when  the  word  had  no 
definite  meaning.  Formerly,  no  strict  line  could  be 
drawn  between  legitimate  "  grooming  "  and  unfair  cov- 
ering of  defects  in  any  bird  on  exhibition.  The  principle 
is  given  in  the  words,  "  any  self-evident  attempt  to  de- 
ceive the  judge." 

There  are  many  pictorial  cuts,  a  few  in  color,  but 
most  of  them  in  black  and  white.  These  are  used  both 
to  illustrate  defects  and  to  show  forth  excellencies  of 
sections,  feathers,  or  entire  birds.  There  is  a  diagram 
showing  every  named  section  in  a  bird  to  be  described 
or  judged.  There  are  twenty-five  such  divisions  of  the 
body  and  its  covering.  This  diagram  and  the  Glos- 
sary of  Technical  Terms  prepare  the  student  to  under- 
stand what  may  be  said  in  the  body  of  the  book.  Cor- 
respondence schools,  or  individual  workers  who  may 
wish  to  get  out  glossaries  of  their  own,  to  illuminate  their 
text  or  other  books,  must  make  their  own  definitions.  The 
Standard  Glossary  comprises  ten  pages  of  special  terms 
used  by  poultrymen,  many  of  which  are  illustrated,  as 
well  as  defined  by  words.  There  are  several  pages  of 
specific  instructions  to  judges,  both  as  to  score  card  and 
comparison  judging.  All  general  disqualifications  ap- 
pear in  this  part  of  the  book,  and  are  followed  by  a 
statement  of  the  exact  discounts  or  "  cuts  "  to  be  made 
for  all  the  common  defects  that  may  be  expected  to 
show  in  fowls,  as  exhibited.  For  instance,  counting 
perfection  —  the  ideal  never  attained  —  at  one  hundred,  a 
crooked  breastbone  may  be  cut  from  one  half  to  two 
points,  according  to  the  gravity  of  the  fault ;  irregular 
barring  in  Plymouth  Rocks  receives  a  cut  of  from  one 
half  to  three  times  that  amount  wherever  it  appears,  etc. 


258  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

Nearly  fifty  such  "  cuts "  are  prescribed  carefully. 
There  are  also  special  disqualifications,  which  appear 
with  variety  descriptions,  in  the  body  of  the  book. 


The  Author's  Favorite  Birds :  White  Indian  Runner  Ducks 

The  remainder  of  the  book  consists  of  variety  de- 
scriptions, mostly  illustrated  by  half  tones,  together 
with  the  text  of  those  articles  of  the  American  Poultry 
Association's  Constitution  and  By-laws  which  refer  to 
the  admission  of  new  breeds  and  varieties,  and  which 
give  the  rules  under  which  poultry  shows  must  be  held. 
Among  such  rules  are :  that  no  judge  may  show  birds 
in  any  class  which  he  is  to  judge,  and  no  exhibitor  may 


THE  AMERICAN  STANDARD   OF  PERFECTION    259 

show  under  any  judge  birds  which  he  has  bought  of 
this  judge  within  six  months  previous  to  the  time  they 
are  to  be  judged  ;  that  every  fowl  shown  must  be  the  actual 
property  of  the  person  showing  it,  to  which  affidavit 
must  be  made  if  required  ;  that  exhibitors  shall  make  no 
attempt  to  interfere  with  or  influence  judges ;  that  ex- 
hibitors shall  have  certain  rights  of  appeal,  etc.  In  a 
word,  they  are  in  the  line  of  all  human  experience :  viz., 
that  it  must  be  made  as  difficult  as  possible  for  men  to 
go  wrong.  The  sixteen  sections  covering  these  rules 
must  be  printed  on  the  entry  blanks  of  such  shows  as 
accept  the  authority  of  the  American  Poultry  Associa- 
tion, and  are  required  to  be  signed  in  ink  by  all  accepted 
exhibitors. 

Having  such  a  wide  field  from  which  to  draw,  and  such 
wide  jurisdiction,  the  American  Poultry  Association  is 
becoming  a  numerous  and  a  powerful  body,  whose  king- 
dom is  likely  to  increase  if  it  is  fortunate  enough  not  to 
make  bad  blunders  as  time  passes.  The  fact  that  all 
Branches  have  recognized  and  specific  voting  privileges, 
and  that  members  may  also  join  the  Association  direct 
and  vote  as  individuals,  gives  every  portion  of  our  coun- 
try power  in  training  the  growth  of  this  important  body. 
If  the  people  have  the  foresight  to  accept  and  to  use 
this  power,  as  members  in  attendance  upon  its  delibera- 
tions, they  are  supreme. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  what  work  this 
body  should  take  up  specifically.  Many  of  the  members 
have  done  much  thinking  along  this  line,  and  various 
suggestions,  some  valuable  and  workable,  others  dubious, 
have  been  brought  out.  A  utility  Standard  is  one  of 
the  advance  movements  suggested,  but  the  Association  is 


260 


THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


rather  skittish  when  asked  to  stand  publicly  for  utility 
standards,  egg  standards,  etc.  Possibly  its  joint  mind 
sees  difficulties  which  have  not  occurred  to  the  minds  of 
individuals  with  pet  ideas.  It  has  been  suggested  by 
a  strong  farm  paper  published  in  New  York  that  the 
American  Poultry  Association  form  a  notable  committee 
to  investigate  the  various  "  Sys- 
tems "  thoroughly,  and  make  a 
public  statement  of  its  findings. 
One  member  suggested  that  the 
Association  might  take  up  the  co- 
operative marketing  of  poultry  prod- 
ucts, somewhat  in  line  with  such 
work  in  European  countries.  Many 
feel  that  the  central  body  should 
make  specific  and  sustained  effort 
to  educate  the  public  along  every 
line  of  thought  and  work  in  con- 
nection with  poultry,  more  directly  than  through  its  ex- 
hibitions. Under  this  head,  one  says  that  the  buying 
public  should  be  educated  as  to  good  and  poor  quality  in 
stock;  one  suggests  that  the  Association  could  get  out  a 
monthly  bulletin,  giving  news  items,  special  information 
along  new  lines  of  poultry  development,  success  of  Station 
experiments,  etc. ;  one  thinks  that  important  educative  and 
protective  work  could  be  done  through  giving  all  licensed 
judges  authority  to  place  charges  with  the  American 
Poultry  Association  Secretary,  whenever  anything  ques- 
tionable comes  to  their  knowledge ;  another  thinks  its 
great  work  is  so  to  appeal  to  utility  breeders  that  they 
shall  see  the  great  benefit  that  would  come  to  them 
through  membership  in  a  powerful  national  body* 


Cock,  White  Laced  Red 
Cornish.  Breed  Re- 
cently Admitted  to 
Standard.  (Originated 
by  Professor  W.  H.  Card, 
Connecticut) 


THE  AMERICAN  STANDARD   OF  PERFECTION    261 

Under  the  head  of  active  support  to  vital  things, 
many  believe  that  the  matter  of  taking  up  parcels 
post  —  "with  every  Congressman  and  Senator,"  one  puts 
it  —  and  that  of  putting  pressure  upon  the  express  com- 
panies to  compel  better  rates  and  careful  handling  of 
shipments  are  the  most  promising  activities.  This  last 
to  include,  also,  just  settlement  for  claims  of  loss  and 
neglect  in  transit.  One  of  these  members  instanced  an 
experience  of  his  own  to  show  in  what  direction  the 
power  and  prestige  of  the  Association  could  be  used.  A 
certain  shipment  of  fowls  was  so  smothered  by  piling 
other  packages  above  and  around  the  coop,  that  nearly 
two  thirds  the  fowls  comprising  it  were  killed.  Claim 
for  damages  was  entered.  Long  delay  ensued,  with  no 
favorable  result.  Finally,  the  shipper  stated  plainly  to 
the  carrying  company  that,  unless  he  received  early 
satisfaction,  he  would  lay  the  matter  before  the  American 
Poultry  Association.  The  effectiveness  of  this  was  shown 
in  the  fact  that,  in  less  than  a  week,  he  received  full  value 
for  the  smothered  birds. 

One  member,  high  in  poultry  councils,  asserts  that 
the  government  is  appropriating  thousands  of  dollars  to 
each  Experiment  Station  in  our  states  for  investigation 
in  all  other  branches  of  agriculture.  From  this,  he 
deduces  that  poultry  also  should  have  the  benefit  of 
such  nursing,  and  states  his  belief  that  our  national 
government,  "if  the  proper  effort  was  made,"  would 
appropriate  several  thousand  dollars  each  year  to  each 
state,  for  poultry  investigation.  Another  suggests  that, 
since  the  United  States  government  has  not  yet  burst 
some  of  its  swaddling  bands  of  red  tape  sufficiently  to  take 
a  census  of  any  poultry  except  that  carried  upon  "farms," 


262  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

the  American  Poultry  Association  should  undertake  a 
complete  census.  Possibly  this  is  the  most  herculean 
task  it  has  been  asked  to  undertake. 

A  Western  hustler  proposes  that  the  Association  appoint 
organizers  in  general,  to  the  number  of  six  to  ten,  cover- 
ing the  United  States,  Canada,  and  Mexico,  these  to  have 
"subs"  in  the  states,  and  "sub-subs"  in  the  counties. 
Selling  the  Standard  of  Perfection  is  also  a  part  of  the 
suggested  duties  of  these  organizers. 

A  Committee  on  Claims  is  suggested  by  one  member ; 
so  that,  if  either  express  companies  or  individuals  have 
been  unfair  or  have  attempted  direct  fraud,  they  might 
be  compelled  either  to  make  losses  good  or  to  show  their 
own  freedom  from  responsibility.  The  same  man  would 
have  state  inspection  of  poultry  yards  and  of  cold-storage 
goods,  the  latter  being  labeled  as  such,  under  law.  This 
member  believes  that  such  a  systematic  work  would 
place  the  American  Poultry  Association  where  it  could 
bring  about  parcels  post  or  any  other  reform  needed. 
He  sums  his  ideas  up  as  follows  :  "  I  would  make  the 
American  Poultry  Association  such  an  attractive  body 
that  every  man  who  bred  poultry  could  not  help  but  join." 

These  are  far  from  being  all  the  suggestions  made 
by  members  for  future  activities  of  the  American 
Poultry  Association,  but  they  are  enough  to  show  all  who 
are  interested  in  poultry  that  there  is  opportunity 
ahead  which  may  overshadow  entirely  anything  that 
has  as  yet  been  accomplished.  If  "every  man  who 
bred  poultry  "  should  be  drawn  in  by  the  attractiveness 
and  helpfulness  of  the  governing  body,  all  the  Begin- 
ners who  read  this  book  must  be  included.  Quite  a 
proportion  of  the  present  membership  believe  that  the 


THE  AMERICAN  STANDARD   OF  PERFECTION    263 

Association  should  not  be  strictly  a  fanciers'  body, 
which  it  virtually  is  at  present,  but  should  also  make 
itself  indispensable  to  the  utility  man,  and  this  in  such 
wise  that  he  must  recognize  this  service  and  become  a 
member.  Strong  effort  is  being  made  along  this  line. 

It  is  but  recently  that  the  poultry  world  rubbed  its 
sleepy  eyes  in  awaking  to  the  fact  that  women  form 
presumably  about  two  fifths  of  those  actively  interested 
in  all  matters  which  are  at  the  present  supposed  to 
form  the  especial  bailiwick  of  the  American  Poultry 
Association.  Not  long  after  this,  the  Secretary  of  the 
American  Poultry  Association  sent  out  a  circular  letter 
to  members,  whose  preamble  voiced  the  Secretary's 
recognition  of  the  important  part  which  women  are 
taking  in  poultry  culture,  and  his  belief  that  the  Ameri- 
can Poultry  Association  could  do  no  greater  service 
to  the  cause  it  represents  than  to  take  an  active  interest 
in  establishing  a  women's  department,  to  be  known 
as  "  The  Ladies'  Auxiliary  of  the  American  Poultry 
Association."  It  was  proposed  that  the  Auxiliary 
should  be  conducted  along  the  same  lines  as  the 
Branch  Associations  already  under  the  Association. 
A  part  of  the  purposive  outline  of  this  new  venture 
was  stated  thus :  "  To  encourage  women  to  become 
interested  in  Institute  work  and  to  contribute  articles 
on  all  phases  of  poultry  culture  to  the  Poultry  Press." 
Probably  the  worthy  Secretary  did  not  know  that 
women  had  been  eagerly  welcomed  by  the  Poultry 
Press  as  contributors,  for  twenty  years  previously, 
provided  that  they  would  work  for  the  serene  joy  of 
getting  their  names  in  print,  or  of  being  "  a  sister  " 
to  the  rest  of  the  public ;  or  would  take  their  payment 


264  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

in  advertising !  However,  I  think  he  was  utterly  sin- 
cere in  offering  this  opening  to  the  women  members 
(present  and  also  to-be)  toward  more  systematic  and 
specific  affiliation  with  the  sub-organizations.  The 
name  offered  was  criticized,  but  the  movement  was 
met  with  considerable  heartiness  by  the  press,  one 
editor  saying  that  there  ought  to  be  a  thousand  women 
enrolled  as  members  of  the  Association  within  two 
or  three  years.  Some  few  women  objected  to  their 
status.  One  said  very  positively  that  she  would  in- 
fluence the  local  club  to  join  the  American  Poultry 
Association,  if  women  were  to  go  in  on  the  same  footing 
as  men,  but  she  had  "  no  desire  to  join  any  sewing 
circle."  Apparently,  there  was  no  one  with  immediate 
interest  and  responsibility  sufficient  to  push  the  move- 
ment, as  it  has  not  yet  rounded  out  to  fulfillment,  at 
the  present  writing.  It  is  mentioned  here  that  women  in 
especial,  among  the  Beginners,  may  know  what  is  "  in  the 
air."  There  is  no  doubt,  as  it  seems  to  me,  that  women 
poultry  keepers  as  a  body  or  an  annex  to  a  body,  can  get 
all  the  recognition  which  they  desire,  if  they  manifest  that 
desire  to  those  in  power.  There  is  no  industry  in  the 
country,  probably,  with  which  women  are  more  closely 
connected,  or  in  which  they  have  had  more  influence. 
This  seems  to  be  quite  generally  admitted,  and,  as  I  read 
the  signs,  I  think  the  men  of  the  American  Poultry  As- 
sociation would  prefer  that  the  women  come  in  "  on  an 
equal  footing,"  but  as  a  separate  Branch.  However, 
the  American  Poultry  Association  has,  at  the  present 
time,  a  goodly  number  of  individual  women  members, 
who,  being  in,  and  life  members,  are  not  worrying  much 
about  the  status  of  women  therein ! 


Black  Minorca  Cock  "Perfection,"  a  First  Prize  Winner  at  New  York. 
Courtesy  of  G.  A.  Clark,  Seymour,  Indiana 


THE  AMERICAN   STANDARD   OF  PERFECTION    265 

All  poultry  interests  tend  to  dovetail  together.  The 
United  States  government  has  put  out  a  special  bulletin 
on  marketing  farm  eggs.  At  Denver,  in  August,  1911, 
it  made  a  direct  effort  to  ally  with  itself  the  strength 
of  the  American  Poultry  Association,  in  proposing, 
through  Mr.  Robert  R.  Slocum  (in  charge  of  the 
United  States  Government  Poultry  Plant,  Washington, 
D.  C.)  a  plan  of  cooperative  marketing,  to  be  furthered 
by  the  American  Poultry  Association  Branches. 

The  plan  proposed  that,  wherever  an  American 
Poultry  Association  member  of  sufficient  business 
enterprise  could  be  found  to  start  a  group,  a  local 
group  of  producers  of  eggs  for  market  should  form 
a  Cooperative  Association  for  selling  these  eggs.  Re- 
ferring to  the  stupendous  losses  through  deterioration 
of  eggs,  Mr.  Slocum  said  :  "  The  retailer,  the  shipper, 
and  the  buyer  do  not  stand  this  loss.  They  simply 
pass  it  back  by  reducing  the  price  offered  for  eggs 
till  it  rests  mainly  on  the  farmer  or  producer."  He 
also  affirmed  :  "  The  whole  success  of  the  scheme  rests 
on  the  building  up  an  irreproachable  reputation  for 
the  eggs."  Methods  of  insuring  this  appear  in  the 
set  of  rules  proffered  as  a  model  for  trial.  The  real 
grip  of  the  situation  rests  on  gaining  this  reputation 
and  on  shortening  the  time  between  production  and 
consumption. 

The  Rules  suggested,  under  which  such  groups  of 
producers  might  work,  are  based  chiefly  on  these  two 
demands  :  irreproachable  quality,  and  quick  transit  to 
consumer.  They  include :  daily  gathering ;  clean, 
even-sized  eggs  in  clean,  uniform  cartons ;  cool  storing, 
when  storage  is  necessary ;  stamping  each  egg  and 


266  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

each  carton  with  the  number  of  the  producer ;  selling 
none  of  the  stamped  eggs  through  any  other  agencies ; 
separating  white  from  brown,  or  other  required  grad- 
ing ;  delivery  twice  a  week ;  offering  no  eggs  but  those 
laid  by  the  producer's  own  flock. 

A  corollary  to  the  plan  was  that  the  American 
Poultry  Association  should  aid  in  securing  good,  re- 
liable markets  for  the  eggs  of  the  cooperating  groups. 
An  American  Poultry  Association  seal  was  also  sug- 
gested, "  Which  could  well  come  to  stand  for  first-class 
quality  in  eggs." 

As  to  the  link,  it  was  suggested  that  each  cooperative 
group  might  join  the  American  Poultry  Association 
as  a  "  Society  member,"  even  though  not  all  were  in- 
dividual members.  It  remains  to  be  seen  what  may 
be  the  outworking  of  this  plan  for  the  help  of  producers 
and  Beginners. 


XXII 

POULTRY    SCHOOLS 

Sixty-five  Great  Schools  in  Line  —  The  Schools  as  Short 
Cuts  —  "  Specializing  "  —  Expenses  at  Cornell  —  Cer- 
tificates of  Proficiency  —  Accommodations  —  Connecti- 
cut's courses  —  Neither  Pains  nor  Expense  Spared  — 
Pennsylvania  Offerings  —  Poultry  and  Fruit  —  Work 
at  Various  Stations 

THE  latest  information  at  my  command  states  that 
courses  of  instruction  in  agriculture  are  now  given  in  65 
of  our  colleges  and  universities,  these  being  in  operation 
in  every  state.  None  are  credited  to  Alaska.  It  is  my 
impression  that  Alaska  has  now  been  added  to  the  list 
of  commonwealths  giving  poultry  instruction  ;  although 
not  in  a  college,  it  may  be.  The  report  says  :  "  About 
50  of  these  institutions  also  provide  special,  short,  and 
correspondence  courses  in  the  different  branches  of 
agriculture,  including  agronomy,  horticulture,  animal 
husbandry,  poultry  raising,  cheese  making,  dairying, 
sugar  making,  rural  engineering,  farm  mechanics,  and 
other  technical  subjects.  With  few  exceptions,  each  of 
these  colleges  offers  free  tuition  to  residents  of  the 
state  in  which  it  is  located.  In  all  the  excepted  cases, 
scholarships  are  open  to  promising  and  energetic  stu- 
dents ;  and,  in  all,  opportunities  are  found  for  some  to 
earn  part  of  their  expenses  by  their  own  labor."  Thus, 
there  is  no  need  for  the  Beginner  who  is  free  to  go  and 
come  and  in  good  health  to  assume  the  risks  which  accom- 
pany taking  up  a  business  of  which  he  knows  nothing. 

267 


POULTRY  SCHOOLS  269 

It  is  true  that  most  of  the  books  used  in  the  Poultry 
Courses  are  the  same  that  may  be  bought  in-  open  mar- 
ket by  any  who  wish.  It  is  true  that  the  courses  are 
often  too  short  to  be  much  more  than  a  beginning  in 
needed  instruction.  It  has  been  true,  in  some  cases, 
that  the  Director  of  the  Poultry  Course  has  not  himself 
known  all  that  was  to  be  known  about  poultry.  But 
there  are  some  things  to  be  gained  at  these  schools 
for  poultry  instruction,  which  cannot  be  gained  outside 
them.  A  level-headed  man  usually  manages  them;  in- 
struction is  given  in  chemistry,  drainage,  building,  and 
many  other  lines  which  the  book  student  would  probably 
omit ;  special  attention  is  given  to  accuracy  of  mind  and 
method ;  experts  are  engaged  who  not  only  teach  students 
what  they  think  the  students  ought  to  want  to  know,  but 
who  encourage  questions,  so  that  the  students  may 
really  get  what  they  need  to  know.  Above  all,  the  prac- 
tice work  under  oversight,  and  under  the  necessity  of 
making  records  and  giving  reports,  is  of  value  far  beyond 
book  knowledge  ;  which  one  must  apply  by  continually 
making  errors  because  of  having  no  real  standard  of 
judgment.  Errors  are  costly.  Schooling  is  costly,  also, 
it  may  —  possibly  —  be  said.  But  very  little  besides  one's 
own  support  need  be  expended,  and,  as  this  is  a  necessity 
anywhere,  the  real  cost  is  only  the  loss  of  one's  earning 
time,  and  the  difference  in  cost  between  support  at  the 
schools  and  support  elsewhere.  Lads  under  age  going 
from  home  would  perhaps  find  support  expense  in- 
creased, although  it  is  kept  as  near  cost  to  the  Institutions 
as  possible ;  but  workers  who  pay  for  their  board  else- 
where would  be  quite  likely  to  find  their  living  ex- 
pense actually  lessened  at  the  colleges.  And,  in  all 


270  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

cases,  if  a  deserving  student  needs  a  lift,  he  is  likely  to 
get  it,  and  in  a  way  that  will  preserve  his  self-respect 
and  independence. 

The  colleges  which  offer  short  poultry  courses  usually 
put  out  a  circular  describing  briefly  and  clearly  just 
what  they  purpose  to  give  the  student.  Some  of  them 
offer  courses  of  different  lengths,  or  a  shorter  course  in 
the  summer  season  —  or,  at  the  shortest,  a  "  Farmers' 
Week"  is  given,  in  which  the  student,  be  he  lad  of  four- 
teen or  white-haired  head  of  a  family,  may  specialize  — 
attractive  word!  —  just  by  choosing  from  the  almost 
numberless  lectures  and  demonstrations  those  which  have 
to  do  with  poultry.  "  Poultry  Husbandry  "  is  a  finely 
rounded  new  term  which  came  up  when  it  was  needed. 
The  professors  who  cover  this  work  at  the  colleges  are  pro- 
fessors of  Poultry  Husbandry,  and  this  word  covers  all  that 
is  included,  the  best,  I  believe,  of  any  term  available  to  us. 

Cornell  University's  circular,  for  instance,  off  ers  a  sched- 
ule of  the  "  Winter  Course  in  Poultry  Husbandry."  The 
one  which  lies  before  me  was  put  out  in  November,  191 1, 
for  the  course  beginning  November  28  of  that  year,  cov- 
ering twelve  weeks,  and  ending  February  23,  1912.  This 
course  was  one  of  five  of  these  specials,  the  others  being  on 
General  Agriculture,  Dairy  Industry,  Horticulture,  and 
Home  Economics.  It  was  '93  when  the  first  course  in 
General  Agriculture  was  given,  but  1906  before  Cornell 
was  fully  awake  and  ready  to  offer  the  Home  Economics 
Course  for  the  girls.  The  year  previous,  the  boys  and 
girls  were  both  provided  for  in  the  Short  Course  in 
Poultry  Husbandry. 

Expenses  are  greater  at  Cornell  than  at  some  of  the 
institutions ;  being  stated  as  now  probably  averaging  about 


POULTRY  SCHOOLS  271 

$95  for  the  twelve  weeks  at  Cornell.  The  State  Grange  has 
had  1 2  fifty-dollar  scholarships  for  members  of  its  order, 
"to  be  awarded  to  men  and  women  who  attain  the 
highest  standing  on  competitive  examination."  The 
Masters  of  the  Pomona  Granges  had  these  in  charge. 
There  are  also  special  prizes  offered  for  creditable  work. 
In  1908-1909  these  numbered  nearly  20,  and  the  "  Poul- 
try Department  Prize  "  was  won  by  a  young  woman, 
for  having  had  the  highest  general  average  standing  in 
all  studies.  One  prize  was  awarded  "  the  most  useful 
student  in  the  Winter  Poultry  Course  Club."  The 
students  who  have  successfully  passed  all  required  ex- 
aminations, and  who  have  completed  a  short  course,  may 
become  candidates  for  a  Certificate  in  Poultry  Hus- 
bandry, to  attain  which  they  must  spend  a  full  year  in 
"  successful  work  at  an  approved  poultry  plant,"  from 
which  they  must  report  regularly  to  the  college,  give 
all  required  information  about  the  work,  and  be  ready 
for  inspection  at  any  time  during  the  year.  There  are 
no  examinations  for  admission  to  the  short  Winter  Course 
in  Poultry  Husbandry,  but  a  good  common  school  edu- 
cation is  necessary  to  good  work,  and  those  weak  in 
arithmetic  and  English  are  advised  to  review  before 
going  to  Ithaca.  Courses  are  open  to  both  men  and 
women,  from  seventeen  years  upward.  Accommodations 
have  been  limited,  and  early  application  is  necessary  to 
gain  admission.  Fifty-six  students  has  been  the  utmost 
limit.  It  is  hoped  that  the  new  building  voted  by  the 
state  will  give  room  for  all  who  need  the  work.  I  be- 
lieve there  will  then  be  room  for  125  in  the  Poultry 
Husbandry  Course.  Instruction  is  divided  as  fairly  as 
possible  between  the  study  of  textbooks,  required  read- 


272  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

ing,  recitation,  and  practice  work.  References  are 
required ;  they  must  be  from  people  of  standing  in  the 
community  from  which  the  student  comes. 

Cornell  University  reported,  in  1911,  twenty-five  of 
her  former  poultry  students  as  connected  with  poultry 
Departments  in  Educational  Institutions.  One  of  these 
entered  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  and  another  be- 
came a  Professor,  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  Washington, 
D.  C.  More  than  half  of  them  have  contributed  leaflets 
and  bulletins  to  our  poultry  literature.  One  is  Assistant 
Professor  in  Poultry  Husbandry  at  Cornell  University, 
and  several  others  assist  there  also.  Two  are  women : 
one  a  teacher  of  Poultry  Husbandry  in  the  Georgia 
Normal  and  Industrial  School ;  the  other  is  Assistant 
in  Poultry  Husbandry  at  Cornell  University. 

Professor  James  E.  Rice,  the  first  Professor  in  Poultry 
Husbandry  at  Cornell,  is  still  its  animating  spirit.  A 
man  of  genial  temper  and  full  of  conservative  common 
sense,  he  is  ranked  as  leading  Professor  in  Poultry 
Husbandry  in  the  United  States. 

Connecticut  issues  a  Quarterly  "C.  A.  C.  Bulletin." 
The  one  for  the  autumn  of  191 1  tells  of  a  course  in  Poul- 
try Husbandry  covering  the  period  from  February  14  to 
March  24.  Instruction  is  divided  between  the  class- 
room and  the  poultry  plant  practice  work  "and  teaches 
practically  every  phase  of  the  poultry  industry."  There 
are  71  general  lectures,  by  professor  Frederick  H.  Stone- 
burn.  Special  lectures  by  experts  and  outside  professors 
are  also  a  feature.  Each  student  is  expected  to  do  as 
much  practical  work  as  his  time  permits,  "including 
construction  of  houses,  judging,  scoring,  besides  the 
usual  work  with  feeding,  incubation,  brooding,"  etc. 


274  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

This  circular  was  for  the  tenth  annual  course.  A  poul- 
try judge  was  specially  engaged  to  be  present  during 
the  entire  course,  instructing  in  all  points  covered  by 
professional  judges  and  necessary  to  the  breeding  and 
exhibiting  fancier.  Professor  F.  H.  Stoneburn  is  the 
leader  in  Poultry  Husbandry  at  Storrs  at  the  present 


Maine  put  out  advertising  in  the  best  poultry  papers, 
in  November,  1910,  giving  the  lure  of  her  work  in  the 
"Study  of  Poultry  Husbandry."  I  quote:  "The  Uni- 
versity is  endeavoring  to  offer  as  full  and  complete 
courses  in  Poultry  Husbandry  as  it  possibly  can,  and 
will  spare  no  pains  nor  expense  to  put  its  instructional 
work  on  an  equally  high  basis  with  its  experimental 
work."  The  two  plants  for  these  two  classes  of  work 
are  entirely  separate.  Maine  offers  five  choices  in  poul- 
try work  for  students  :  (a)  that  in  the  regular  Four  Years' 
Course,  leading  to  a  degree  in  connection  with  other 
agricultural  work  ;  (b)  the  same  in  the  Two-  Year  School 
Course  ;  (c)  The  Three  Weeks'  Short  Course  ;  (d)  The 
Three  Weeks'  Short  Course  ;  (e)  The  Poultry  Institute. 
No  tuition  fees  for  the  short  term  work.  "  Expense  for 
books  is  small.  Board  and  room  can  be  obtained  at 
reasonable  rates."  Maine  has  gotten  a  hold  which  has 
been  slow  in  coming  to  the  poultry  schools.  It  states  : 
"  Many  farmers  and  their  sons  and  daughters  take  the 
shorter  course  in  order  to  be  better  prepared  to  make 
money  with  poultry  on  the  farm."  When  this  work  was 
in  its  infancy  in  this  country,  almost  none  of  the  farm 
youth  presented  themselves  as  students.  Better  pros- 
pects and  more  available  information  have  doubtless  led 
to  betterment  along  this  line.  And,  I  desire  to  call  at- 


POULTRY  SCHOOLS  275 

tention  again  to  the  fact  that  Maine  is  the  only  state 
that  produces  100  eggs  as  an  average  for  all  her  hens. 
You  who  read,  will,  I  think,  make  the  obvious  inference 
as  to  cause  and  effect. 

I  have  also,  before  me,  the  notes  regarding  the  Penn- 
sylvania Short  Course  for  winter  of  1909-1910,  put  out 
by  the  School  of  Agriculture,  State  College  (this  is  the 
address),  Pennsylvania.  This  was  a  twelve-weeks' 
course.  The  Pennsylvania  people  evidently  bear  in 
mind  the  fact  that  the  farmer  is  very  apt  to  be  "the 
general  farmer"  and  thus  need  all-around  instruction. 
Besides  offering  lectures  on  the  usual  topics,  practice 
work  in  preparing  fowls  for  market,  in  judging  and 
scoring,  in  constructing  poultry  houses  and  appliances, 
in  running  incubators,  etc.,  the  college  offers  combina- 
tion work.  I  quote  :  "The  course  in  poultry  husbandry 
is  intended  to  furnish  such  instruction  and  practice  as 
will  enable  young  men  and  women  to  become  successful 
poultry  keepers  either  as  a  regular  business  or  as  a 
very  profitable  branch  of  farm  work.  Hence,  the  stu- 
dents in  poultry  husbandry  receive  lectures  in  general 
agriculture,  animal  husbandry,  and  dairy  husbandry. 
There  are  lectures  in  agricultural  chemistry,  soils, 
manures,  and  fertilizers,  crops,  veterinary  science,  and 
bookkeeping.  Or,  if  the  student  desires,  he  may  com- 
bine work  in  poultry  husbandry  with  instruction  in 
horticulture." 

The  Wisconsin  work  is  rather  new,  and  the  1911- 
1912  Bulletin  shows  it  as  "  primarily  for  Undergradu- 
ates." Students  just  beginning  the  Agricultural  College 
work  may  take,  in  the  first  six  months,  Elementary  work, 
Pen  Management,  and  Poultry  Judging,  and  gain  seven 


276  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

credits  for  all.  In  the  second  semester,  they  may  take 
Elementary  Poultry  Raising,  Incubation  and  Brooding, 
and  an  "  advanced  course  "  under  the  head  of  "  Poultry 
Management " ;  and  gain  seven  to  nine  credits  for  all. 
"  Poultry  Practice,"  taken  throughout  the  year,  aims  "to 
familiarize  the  student  with  the  ordinary  work  about  a 
poultry  farm."  Under  this  come  carpentry,  caponizing, 
etc.  Assistant  Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  J.  G. 
Hal  pin,  instructs  in  all  these  courses. 

The  New  Jersey  appropriation  was  passed  in  1911. 
Under  date  of  January  2,  1912,  Professor  A.  R.  Lewis 
wrote  me  that  a  class  of  28  was  at  work,  1 1  of  whom 
were  women.  In  other  states,  the  proportion  of  women 
has  held  very  low,  as  a  rule.  The  new  buildings  at  New 
Brunswick  are  in  themselves  an  experiment  in  construc- 
tion, life  of  various  brands  of  roofing,  etc. 

New  Jersey  put  out  an  "  Organization  Circular  for 
Educational  Work,"  with  poultry.  This  plans  for 
County  Associations,  and  a  State  Board  of  Poultry 
Husbandry,  to  be  composed  of  two  members  from  each 
County  Association.  The  Constitutions  are  practical,  a 
provision  of  that  for  the  County  Associations  being  for 
a  library  with  a  librarian,  a  part  of  whose  duties  is  to 
make  a  summarized  report  both  of  the  condition  and 
the  use  of  the  books.  It  also  provides  a  means  of  in- 
creasing the  library. 

The  plan  provides  also  for  a  Reading  Course,  outlines 
such  a  course  for  a  full  year,  and  offers  a  list  of  refer- 
ence books  for  the  library.  This  list  at  first  consisted 
of  ten  books.  I  am  glad  to  know  that  my  "  How  to 
Keep  Hens  for  Profit "  was  found  worthy  to  rank 
among  this  first  ten  books  of  reference,  concerning 


POULTRY   SCHOOLS  277 

which  the  officials  say  that  it "  should  be  the  aim  of  every 
Association  to  have  at  least  one  copy  of  each  in  its 
library." 

Special  lectures  are  also  urged  as  a  part  of  the  educa- 
tional privileges  of  such  Associations. 

I  have  felt  a  close  personal  interest  in  several  of  these 
Stations  which  are  doing  work  with  poultry  :  in  Cornell, 
through  friendship  with  Professor  Rice,  and  because 
New  York  is  my  native  state ;  in  New  Jersey,  because 
New  Jersey  is  my  adopted  state;  in  Rhode  Island, 
because  I  was  a  student  in  the  first  Short  Poultry  Course 
in  the  United  States,  offered  by  little  Rhode  Island ;  in 
Connecticut,  because  I  have  known  Professor  Stoneburn 
since  his  graduation,  and  have  been  on  the  ground  and 
seen  what  he  has  done  with  almost  no  facilities.  On 
the  foundation  laid  by  Rhode  Island,  the  other  Stations 
are  building  strongly.  The  teaching  is  marvelous,  when 
we  consider  how  much  is  crowded  into  one  of  the  Short 
Courses.  The  Bulletins  are  informative,  and  the  col- 
leges carefully  avoid  being  too  "rosy  "  in  their  attitude. 
"  Facts,  and  more  facts,"  might  well  be  considered  their 
war  cry.  And,  while  practice  work,  under  training,  is 
worth  more  than  unassimilated  facts,  the  facts,  the  dis- 
cussions, and  the  training  all  together,  do  make  a  whole 
more  valuable  than  one  could  reasonably  forecast  as 
resulting  from  the  short  period  usually  allowed.  The 
fact  that,  with  the  Short-Course  poultry  students  it  is 
"  This  one  thing  I  do,"  with  whole-hearted  eagerness, 
counts  tremendously  in  the  result.  I  have  seen  no  other 
students  so  universally  eager  as  poultry  students. 

Poultry  farming  combines  so  well  with  fruit  farming 
that  this  ought  to  make  a  very  attractive  combination  to 


278  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

the  son  who  elects  to  stay  on  the  farm.  I  am  often 
amazed  to  see  the  way  in  which  the  best  business  men 
put  their  confidence  in  fruit.  An  apple  evaporator  of 
my  acquaintance,  who  followed  the  fruit  crop  of  the 
country  year  by  year,  evaporating  in  whatever  part  of 
the  country  was  most  prodigal  of  fruit  in  any  one  year, 
set  a  45-acre  farm  entirely  to  apples  just  before  he  was 
ready  to  settle  down.  A  young  fellow  of  18,  of  my  ac- 
quaintance, who,  years  ago,  was  left  with  a  mortgaged 
hill  farm  and  a  family  of  seven  on  his  hands,  set  the 
whole  farm  to  fruit,  and  now  is  the  envy  of  all  the 
neighborhood  for  his  handsome  furniture,  good  clothos, 
and  other  evidences  of  prosperity.  But  I  think  he  has 
worked  harder  than  any  one  of  those  who  envy  him ! 

In  the  middle  West  lives  a  fancier  of  poultry  who  has 
built  up  one  of  the  best  plants  in  the  country,  and  does 
a  very  large  and  successful  business.  All  his  fine  flocks 
run  in  orchards  —  they  could  not  have  a  better  environ- 
ment—  and  it  is  said  that  he  could  any  day  give  up  his 
poultry  and  live  easily,  even  luxuriously,  from  his  or- 
charding. There  are  no  two  products  that  grow  to- 
gether more  naturally  than  poultry  and  tree  fruits, 
unless  one  shut  active  hens  up  with  a  newly  set  lot 
of  small  trees.  This  is  likely  to  be  the  death  of  some 
of  the  trees,  unless  green  feed  is  supplied  with  extreme 
liberality. 

The  list  put  out  by  the  government  in  February,  1911, 
shows  that  Colorado,  though  having  a  man  on  the  staff 
in  charge  of  poultry  investigation,  and  having  a  Farmers' 
Week  in  midwinter,  does  not  offer  a  poultry  course. 
Connecticut  offers  a  Six-Weeks'  Poultry  Course.  Indiana 
has  not  only  a  man  as  instructor  in  Poultry  Husbandry, 


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280  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

but  one  on  Extension  Work  in  Poultry.  The  Iowa  Sta- 
tion has  a  Poultry  man  on  its  staff,  who  is  also  an  A.B. 
The  College,  itself,  has  a  One- Year  Course  in  Poultry 
Husbandry.  The  Kansas  Station  has  an  Assistant  in 
Egg  Investigation,  and  a  Superintendent  of  Poultry 
Husbandry.  Maine  has  a  Poultryman,  besides  the  Bi- 
ologist, who  gives  much  attention  to  the  poultry  work. 
Maine  offers  "a  Three- Weeks'  Course  in  Domestic  Sci- 
ence and  Poultry  Management,"  apparently  a  woman's 
affair.  Maryland  has  an  Associate  Poultryman.  Mas- 
sachusetts Agricultural  College  offers  a  Short  Course  in 
Poultry  Culture  and  has  its  own  Instructor  in  Poultry 
Husbandry.  Minnesota  School  of  Agriculture  has  its 
Instructor  in  Poultry.  Mississippi  has  its  Poultryman 
on  the  Station  Staff.  Montana  Agricultural  College  has 
its  Instructor  in  Poultry  and  gives  a  One-Week  Course. 
North  Dakota  has  its  Assistant  Poultry  Husbandman,  a 
B.S.  Ohio  has  a  B.S.  who  gives  part  time  to  Poultry  In- 
vestigation. Oregon  has  a  Reading  Course  of  five  les- 
sons in  Poultry  Husbandry.  Pennsylvania  College  has  its 
own  Instructor  in  Poultry  Husbandry,  and  the  Station  also 
has  a  Poultry  Husbandman.  Rhode  Island,  the  first  to 
offer  a  systematized  course,  has  a  Six-Weeks'  Course  and 
its  own  Instructor.  Tennessee  has  a  Two-Weeks'  Course. 
Utah  Agricultural  College  has  its  Assistant  in  Poultry 
Husbandry,  a  B.S.  West  Virginia  has  a  Twelve- Weeks' 
Course  in  the  College  proper.  Wisconsin  has  a  B.S. A. 
in  charge  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  on  the  Station  Staff. 
The  Station  is  a  Department  of  the  University,  under 
the  control  of  the  Board  of  Regents.  I  think  it  is  quite 
likely  that  "  Animal  Husbandry,"  in  some  of  the  states, 
includes  poultry,  although  it  is  not  specifically  men- 


POULTRY   SCHOOLS  281 

tioned.  As  a  rule,  the  Stations  are  under  government 
aid,  and  separate  from  the  Colleges  proper.  A  list  of 
Stations  will  be  given  in  the  back  of  this  book,  for  the 
help  of  those  who  may  want  to  keep  in  touch  with  what 
their  states  are  doing  with  poultry.  The  strong  under- 
current making  for  poultry  instruction  and  state  aid  to 


Sicilian  Buttercups,  Egg-Laying  Contest,  Storrs.  Nova  Scotian  Birds. 
Buttercups  Claim  a  High  Record.  (Courtesy  of  Connecticut  Agricultural 
College) 

the  industry  will  doubtless  tend  to  increase  continuously 
the  number  of  those  giving  full  poultry  instruction. 
Connecticut  was  the  first  to  offer  a  Summer  School  of 
Poultry  "  especially  planned  to  meet  the  need  of  teachers, 
business  and  professional  people."  It  reports  that  the 
poultry  class  "  has  been  considered  the  best  class  in  the 
Summer  School  since  this  feature  was  introduced  "  and 
the  students  of  the  Summer  and  Winter  Courses  to- 


282  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

gether  are  said  to  form  the  largest  body  of  poultry  stu- 
dents in  the  country  in  one  state  for  the  year,  although 
Cornell  closely  disputes  in  numbers.  Connecticut  is 
fortunate  in  having  the  immediate  help  of  Professor 
L.  F.  Rettger,  Biologist  of  Sheffield  Scientific  School, 
and  Herbert  K.  Job,  the  State  Entomologist,  while  Pro- 
fessors W.  H.  Card  and  D.  J.  Lambert  are  near  at 
hand.  Rhode  Island,  Pennsylvania,  and  Quebec  gave 
aid  in  191 1,  through  their  Professors,  and  other  promi- 
nent men  gave  lectures.  Cornell  is  probably  the  best 
organized  and  best  equipped  of  all  the  Stations  giving 
poultry  instruction.  The  students  adore  its  open-hearted, 
enthusiastic,  capable  Professor,  James  E.  Rice,  and  I 
heard  the  Acting  Dean  of  Agriculture  rate  the  poultry 
work  there  as  high  as  any  in  the  entire  College. 

Professor  Rice's  latest  project  is  a  "  Poultry  Testing 
Station"  to  which  any  one  in  the  state  may  send  12 
birds  to  be  tested  for  one,  or  two  years,  for  vitality,  egg 
production,  and  prepotency.  The  layers  will  be  officially 
trap  nested,  and  pedigree  hatching  and  brooding  will  be 
carried  on  as  a  beginning  for  "  line  breeding  for  vigor, 
prolificacy,  hatching  power,  market  quality,  and  economy 
of  production  of  flesh  and  eggs."  Several  other  aims  are 
mentioned  in  the  Advance  Bulletin ;  but,  in  connection 
with  what  is  given  in  this  book  in  the  chapter  on  Line 
Breeding  it  is  thought  that  the  item  here  given  will  be 
the  one  to  fix  best  in  the  Beginner's  mind  the  value  of 
line  breeding  of  the  right  sort,  and  of  inherited  power 
in  every  desired  direction. 

An  enormous  amount  of  poultry  instruction  is  offered 
in  this  country,  entirely  outside  the  poultry  schools,  al- 
though the  professors  of  these  schools  often  have  a 


POULTRY  SCHOOLS 


283 


hand  in  it.  A  chief  textbook  used  at  Cornell  is  the 
work  of  the  man  who  instituted  the  first  poultry  short 
course  in  the  United  States,  Professor  A.  A.  Brigham, 
now  of  the  South  Dakota  Station.  The  poultry  papers 
number  scores  —  many  scores.  Some  are  born  and  some 
die,  each  year,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  know  the  exact 
number.  Many  of  the  editors  find  time  to  write  poultry 


New  Jersey's  Long  Laying  House.     Reported  Colder  Than  the  "  Clark  "  House 

books,  and  I  have  known  some  of  them  long  enough  to 
know  that  they  are  themselves  learners,  gaining  some- 
thing each  year.  I  would  not  trust  any  business  man 
who  was  not  of  this  caliber  !  The  United  States  govern- 
ment has  put  out  poultry  bulletins  as  needed.  Indeed, 
I  have  in  my  library  an  old  United  States  bibliography 
of  poultry  literature,  giving  twenty-nine  large  pages 
merely  to  list  the  poultry  publications  then  in  existence, 
including  some  English  and  French  monographs  and 
larger  books.  If  such  was  our  wealth  nearly  fifteen 
years  ago,  what  of  the  present  ?  The  more  marvelous 
growth  of  the  industry  has  been  made,  and  all  the  work 
of  the  poultry  schools  has  been  done  within  that  period. 


284  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

The  very  manufactures  of  poultry  appliances  have 
added  largely  to  poultry  literature.  And,  although  one 
needs  to  read  with  open  eyes  and  judgment  agog,  there 
are  some  catalogues  of  this  kind  which  contain  as  good 
literature  on  their  especial  topics  as  can  be  had  any- 
where. It  is  a  rather  good  education  to  read  just  these 
catalogues,  provided  that  one  can  keep  his  head  and 
balance  one  against  another.  Milo  Hastings  has  made 
the  unqualified  statement  that  practically  all  the  litera- 
ture of  poultry  has  been  written  by  those  who  had  some- 
thing to  sell  to  the  poultryman.  At  least  three  fairly 
reputable  poultry  papers,  which  furnish  good  reading 
matter  in  their  columns,  have  snatched  at  the  chance  to 
make  money  from  advertising  and  selling  books  of  the 
"secret  and  system"  type. 

One  of  our  more  prominent  poultry  papers  said,  some 
time  ago,  that  careful  study  showed  that  about  two  fifths 
of  its  readers  were  women.  It  is  believed  that  more 
than  half  the  people  actually  engaged  in  raising  the 
chickens  are  women  with  their  children.  The  United 
States  government  has  issued  a  special  Bulletin  outlin- 
ing methods  by  which  Women's  Institutes  may  be  organ- 
ized and  conducted.  In  1910,  15  states  held  Institutes 
for  women,  and  160  sessions  of  institutes  for  young 
people  were  held.  There  are  also  special  Institutes  for 
youths  who  have  left  the  public  school,  from  the  age  of 
14  upward,  just  at  the  period  when  they  are  choosing 
their  work  for  life.  The  teaching  is  especially  intended 
to  show  how  to  make  money  with  farming. 

The  Boys'  and  Girls'  Clubs  in  the  public  school  are 
different.  The  government  makes  the  frank  statement 
that  the  only  way  to  teach  some  fathers  better  methods 


POULTRY  SCHOOLS  285 

of  farming  is  through  their  boys.  In  1910,  over  46,000 
boys  were  enrolled  in  Corn  Clubs.  Prize  winners  in  four 
states  were  given  diplomas  of  merit  and  trips  to  Wash- 
ington. The  next  year,  every  Southern  state  offered  such 
trips,  through  bankers'  associations,  boards  of  trade, 
educational  associations ;  also  through  private  citizens 
and  through  state  fairs ;  while  governors  and  Superin- 
tendents of  public  instruction  offered  diplomas  to  all 
boys  who  would  make  excellent  records. 

Next  to  studying  how  to  grow  corn  will  inevitably  come 
how  to  feed  it,  and  how  to  do  other  things.  With  the 
mother,  the  boys  and  girls  and  the  older  youth  all  waking 
to  the  opportunity  ready  to  their  grasp,  and  with  the 
Poultry  Clubs  in  the  Public  Schools,  the  reign  of  igno- 
rance and  indifference  to  the  farm  will  surely  be  dealt 
an  overcoming  blow. 

Even  the  wisest  in  poultry  matters  dare  not  venture 
to  forecast  what  will  be  the  amazing  developments  in 
this  field  of  work  between  1912  and  1920.  With  New 
York  establishing  Agricultural  High  Schools  as  fast  as 
the  people  will  support  them  ;  -with  Arkansas  leading  in 
putting  instruction  in  poultry  culture  into  the  public 
schools,  where  every  child  can  be  taught ;  with  Station 
after  Station  making  special  efforts  toward  poultry  in- 
struction ;  with  Boys'  and  Girls'  Clubs  starting  up  here 
and  there  ;  with  two  wide-reaching  Competitions  already 
on,  from  which  reports  go  out  and  are  published  broad- 
cast every  month  of  the  year,  who  shall  say  to  what  we 
shall  attain  ? 

The  many  raise  poultry,  it  is  true  ;  more  will  raise  it 
in  the  near  future  ;  we  have  something  Jike  five  million 
farms,  the  government  says,  where  poultry  is  raised  every 


286  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

year.  But,  it  would  take  an  egg  a  day  from  every  one 
of  those  farms,  to  give  New  York  City  alone  one  egg 
apiece  for  that  day,  for  each  dweller  within  her  greater 
limits.  It  doesn't  seem  much  to  ask,  that  each  person 
shall  have  one  egg  a  day  ;  but,  with  eggs  at  five  cents 
apiece,  as  they  were  at  wholesale  at  midwinter,  it  would 
take  $250,000  to  give  each  of  those  hungry  New  Yorkers 
their  one  egg  each  for  that  one  day.  If  they  had  it  every 
day  —  ah  me  ;  you  figure  it !  I  cannot  believe  my  figures. 
They  make  it  over  $90,000,000.  Just  for  one  egg  a  day 
all  the  year  for  one  city  full  of  people  eager  for  eggs  ! 

Eggs  have  been  going  up,  up,  up  because  demand 
exceeded  supply,  much  of  the  year.  What  if  the  de- 
mand for  poultry  instruction  in  the  schools  should  kill 
the  goose  that  lays  the  golden  eggs  ?  What  if  we,  one 
day,  raise  so  many  eggs  that  prices  go  down,  down, 
down  ?  Aweel,  that  day  is  dim  in  the  future ;  and,  at 
all  events,  the  hungry  people  will  be  fed,  and  that  will 
take  one  care  from  the  shoulders  of  the  social  reformers. 


XXIII 
PRACTICAL   LAYING   CONTESTS 

"Somebody"  and  Public  Contests  —  Two  Opponents  of 
Competitions  —  Australian  Reports  and  Methods  — 
Proportion  of  Food  Cost  to  Value  of  Product  —  Four 
Leading  Breeds  —  The  Leghorn  Adapted  to  Mild 
Climates  — 18  Pens  with  2oo-egg  Averages  —  Mor- 
tality During  Tests — Deductions  from  Australian  Ex- 
periences —  New  American  Competitions,  Connecticut 
and  Missouri 

DURING  the  20  years  previous  to  1911,  there  were  a 
number  of  attempts  at  laying  contests  in  this  country. 
In  these  contests,  birds  were  usually  under  the  handling 
of  their  several  owners,  the  proof  of  results  required  be- 
ing a  sworn  statement  before  a  local  notary.  A  certain 
book  on  heavy  laying  was  based  largely  on  the  published- 
results  of  such  a  contest.  The  author  has  since  "re- 
canted." One  College  Bulletin  was  made  up  of  the 
history  and  outcome  of  a  certain  competition  conducted 
by  and  reported  by  the  owners  of  the  several  flocks. 
While  only  supposedly  reliable  men  would  be  selected 
for  such  work,  there  is  abundant  room  for  lack  of 
public  confidence  in  a  contest  of  this  stamp.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  in  any  contest  whatever,  there  must  be 
some  leaning  on  the  character  of  the  men  engaged  in  the 
work;  since  we  must  have  human  instruments.  But 
there  is  good  reason  for  requiring  that  such  contests  be 
conducted  in  a  way  such  that  temptation  toward  and  op- 
portunity for  deceit  shall  be  minimized  to  the  last  pos- 
sible degree. 

287 


PRACTICAL   LAYING   CONTESTS  289 

During  the  2oyear  period  above  noted,  breeders  and 
fanciers  and  some  few  utility  men  took  up  space  at  inter- 
vals, in  the  poultry  and  agricultural  publications,  urging 
that  "  somebody  "  ought  to  arrange  a  series  of  public 
contests  for  the  stimulation  of  the  poultry  industry  in 
America.  Since  America  got  into  touch  with  the  Aus- 
tralian competitive  work,  begun  nearly  a  decade  ago, 
such  items  have  become  more  numerous  and  more  insist- 
ent. One  American  poultry  journalist,  in  especial,  Mr. 
Miller  Purvis,  was  prominent  in  supporting  this  idea. 
When,  however,  a  great  daily  took  up  the  work  inter- 
nationally in  1911,  giving  out  a  Summer  Prospectus  fol- 
lowing by  a  few  weeks  the  published  inception  of  a 
national  competition  opened  by  the  Missouri  Experiment 
Station,  protests  were  voiced  by  two  prominent  poultry 
writers.  The  editor  of  Farm  Poultry  refers  to  the  first 
competition  under  the  heading,  "  The  Latest  Imported 
Utility  Fad,"  quotes  a  writer  in  an  Australian  paper  as 
saying  that  Australia's  competitions,  as  at  present  con- 
ducted, are  "  a  waste  of  good  material  and  a  menace  to  the 
industry,"  and  avers  that,  in  general,  "  a  laying  com- 
petition is  essentially  amateurish  and  inconclusive." 
Mr.  Thomas  F.  Rigg,  a  clever  journalist  and  a  man 
of  unusual  balance  of  mind  and  sanity  of  outlook, 
said  :  "  Our  idea  of  nothing  doing,  of  waste  of  time, 
energy,  and  money,  is  a  '  laying  contest.' '  At  the  same 
time,  some  of  the  most  progressive  of  state  and  county 
Fair  Associations  were  advertising  one-week  laying  com- 
petitions as  a  part  of  the  attractions  of  the  Fairs. 

All  the  rest  of  the  poultry  world  which  parades  in 
print,  as  far  as  I  have  seen  its  expression  of  opinion, 
hailed  the  incipient  American  contests  as  solid  proof  of 
u 


2QO  THE   BEGINNER  IN   POULTRY 

progress.  The  fact  that  they  were  to  be  handled  at  two 
of  our  well-proven  Experiment  Stations  made  the  poultry 
contingent  generally  give  them  a  warm  welcome,  and 
put  into  them  that  snap  of  public  interest  which  they 
would  otherwise  have  lacked  utterly. 

Inasmuch  as  the  reports  from  the  qne  most  important 
series  of  poultry  contests  up  to  1911  have  been  received 
in  utter  good  faith  by  poultry  folk  in  general,  it  may  be 
worth  while  to  give  a  little  time  to  a  study  of  their  con- 
ditions and  their  published  results.  The  Beginner  may 
find  here  at  least  a  stimulus  to  some  very  helpful  pon- 
dering. This  notable  series,  now  covering  nine  years, 
1911-1912  being  the  tenth,  —  known  as  "The  Australian 
Laying  Competitions,"  —  was  planned  and  doubtless 
financed  by  a  daily  newspaper  in  Sydney,  N.  S.  W.  But, 
knowing  that  such  contests  must  be  "  open  to  the  pub- 
lic "  not  only  as  to  entrance,  but  also  as  to  knowledge  of 
all  the  detail  work,  and  that  they  must  be  handled  by 
men  above  suspicion,  the  originators  placed  the  work 
under  the  handling  of  the  Hawkesbury  Agricultural  Col- 
lege. 

Poultry  raisers  of  New  South  Wales  have  always  been 
the  chief  entrants.  New  Zealand  tried  her  luck,  and 
America  took  a  fling  two  years  in  succession,  but  it  was 
found  that  the  long  preliminary  voyage  was  too  great  a 
handicap  to  allow  the  long-distance  birds  to  compete 
fairly ;  though,  even  with  this,  a  pen  of  Rose-Comb 
Brown  Leghorns  from  America  gained  one  six-months' 
first  prize,  together  with  the  breed  prize  for  the  same 
year ;  also  the  distinction  of  paying  the  most  profit  above 
cost  of  feed  for  a  full  year. 

A  White  Wyandotte  breeder  succeeded  in   getting 


2Q2 


THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


well  toward  the  top,  and  a  Rhode  Island  Red  pen  from 
America  was  eighteenth  in  a  list  of  about  TOO  contestants. 
In  this  competition,  4  pens  rolled  up  market  incomes 
above  $24  for  each  pen  of  6  birds.  This  is  $4  or  more 
for  each  hen  from  eggs  alone.  In  two  cases,  the  aver- 
age income  was  $4.81. 


Pen  of  White  Wyandottes,  International  Competition.     Agricultural  College, 
Storrs,  Connecticut 

The  question  as  to  most  profit  narrows  chiefly  to  that 
of  which  can  be  fed  most  cheaply.  Going  back  to  the 
consideration  of  classes,  we  may  say  that  we  might  ex- 
pect it  to  be  a  general  rule  that  the  Mediterranean 
classes  would  eat  least,  birds  of  the  medium-sized 
American  type  next,  and  the  ten-  and  twelve-pound 
Asiatics  most.  This  is  only  common  sense,  and  the 
real  question  is  .  In  what  proportion  does  the  feed  con- 


PRACTICAL   LAYING   CONTESTS  293 

sumed  by  each  of  these  types  stand  to  the  numbers  of 
eggs  which  they  lay  ?  No  one  can  answer  this  question 
absolutely,  as  it  depends  in  some  degree  upon  strain, 
method  of  feeding,  handling,  climate,  etc.  A  rough 
estimate  based  upon  experience  might  be :  if  the  Asi- 
atics be  counted  as  numbering  100  to  consume  a  certain 
amount  of  feed,  this  same  amount  of  the  same  kinds  of 
feed  might  serve  150  Americans  or  200  Mediterraneans. 
Yet  all  these  things  vary  with  conditions. 

In  the  many  Australian  tests,  conducted  successively 
during  the  early  years  of  this  century,  under  one  skilled 
handler,  the  results  point  to  Leghorns,  Wyandottes, 
Orpingtons,  and  Langshans  as  the  best  layers  for  this 
particular  climate  and  handling,  out  of  some  25  selected 
popular  varieties.  After  1903,  less  than  a  dozen 
breeds  were  entered  for  competition.  During  1908- 
1909,  the  two-year  competition  in  which  50  pens  were 
entered  covered  only  eight  varieties,  belonging  to  six 
breeds,  among  which  the  Langshan  does  not  appear. 
Nearly  half  of  these  were  White  Leghorns.  A  poultry- 
man  of  wide  experience,  commenting  upon  the  report, 
says  that  the  results  were  by  no  means  full  proof  that 
the  Leghorns  were  so  greatly  in  the  lead,  but  the  rather 
that  this  expert  knew  better  how  to  handle  Leghorns 
than  he  knew  how  to  handle  the  heavier  breeds. 

A  bit  of  side  testimony  on  this  point  may  be  gleaned 
from  an  Australian  Agricultural  Report,  wherem  the 
government  expert  states  that  certain  breeds  do  far 
better  in  Australia  than  do  others.  Australia's  temper- 
ature is  quite  variant,  ranging  from  that  of  latitude  10 
to  latitude  40  degrees,  while  New  South  Wales  itself 
covers  about  the  distance  between  30  and  38  degrees 


294  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

south  latitude.  This  is  almost  the  same  as  the  reach  from 
northern  Maryland  to  northern  Florida,  and  would  seem 
to  be  exactly  the  climate  in  which  the  Leghorns  and 
others  of  their  type  would  be  expected  to  flourish  es- 
pecially well.  They  would  feel  heat  far  less  than  more 
heavily  fluffed  birds,  while  their  susceptible  heads  and 
thinly  clothed  bodies  would  not  have  to  endure  extremes 
of  cold;  therefore  they  might  be  expected  to  lay  well 
during  almost  the  entire  year.  Strange  as  it  may  ap- 
pear, the  same  varieties  which  appear  at  the  head  of 
the  lists,  appear  also,  in  other  pens,  almost  at  the  foot. 
In  one  list,  the  first  nine  pens  are  Leghorns,  Orpingtons, 
and  Wyandottes ;  but  seven  of  the  lowest  nine  are  also 
Leghorns,  Orpingtons,  and  Wyandottes !  This  is  far 
better  proof  of  difference  in  flocks  or  strains  than  it  is  of 
difference  in  breeds.  Yet,  in  the  latest  report  from  these 
competitions  to  hand,  the  lowest  record  was  made  by  a  pen 
of  birds  of  a  certain  variety,  whose  owner  had  twice  won 
the  first  prize  with  the  same  variety !  The  best  record 
for  the  second  year  (two-year  competition)  was  made, 
not  by  the  Leghorns,  but  by  the  Black  Orpingtons. 

In  the  latest  report  available  as  I  write,  we  are  told  that 
only  seven  varieties  in  three  breeds  entered  the  competi- 
tion at  all.  The  rest  had  dropped  out,  discouraged  by 
failures  to  win.  In  the  third  year  of  the  three-year  con- 
tinuous competition,  one  pen  reached  the  2OO-egg  mark. 
In  the  latest  reports  for  one  year,  18  pens  made  an  av- 
erage of  above  200  eggs  each  for  the  year  covered. 

We  get,  in  these  tests,  a  very  good  idea  of  what  may 
fairly  be  expected  from  the  best  available  birds,  under 
a  certain  kind  of  handling.  The  averages  for  all 
were:  for  the  first  year  of  the  series,  130;  gaming 


296  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

gradually  up  to  1909,  the  figures  read,  163,  152,  166, 
1 7 1,  173,  1 80,  1 80.  The  cost  of  feeding  was  reported  at 
$1.62  in  the  1909-1910  test,  and  the  average  profit  over 
cost  of  feed  was  $1.58.  This  basis  of  comparison  en- 
ables any  Beginner  to  figure  what  any  desired  number 
of  birds  may  bring  in  for  him,  always  assuming  the  best 
of  care  and  feed  and  conditions. 

In  the  ninth  Australian  contest,  seventeen  pens  of 
Indian  Runners  competed  against  one  pen  of  Cantonese 
ducks  and  two  pens  of  Buff  Orpington  ducks.  The 
Runners  stood  first  to  ninth,  the  Cantonese  next,  the 
Orpingtons  sixteenth  and  seventeenth.  Five  other  pens 
were  in  a  second-year  test  at  the  same  time  :  four  were 
Runners,  one  Orpingtons.  The  Orpingtons  finished 
lowest.  The  first  three  pens  of  hens  in  the  second  year 
laid  994,  958,  939;  the  first  three  pens  of  Runners  laid 
1244,  1094,  and  1075,  respectively.  This  speaks  well 
for  the  Runners,  the  best  pen  averaging  above  207  in 
their  second  year,  and  the  lowest  of  the  three  giving 
179  in  the  second  year.  As  this  is  nearly  double  what 
United  States  hens  average,  it  may  be  considered  a  re- 
markable record  of  performance. 

It  remains  now  to  consider  a  matter  which,  no  doubt, 
affects  the  finals  very  greatly,  yet  which  many  students 
of  these  reports  would  entirely  fail  to  take  into  consider- 
ation. I  call  the  especial  attention  of  all  Beginners  to 
the  fact  that  these  layers  were  handled  without  the 
annoying  presence  of  males  in  the  laying  pens,  and  that 
they  were  penned  in  groups  of  six.  This  agrees  closely 
with  the  practice  of  two  of  our  American  " Systems" 
which  require  that  the  birds  be  kept  in  very  small 
groups.  They  differ  widely  from  the  tenets  of  another 


PRACTICAL   LAYING   CONTESTS  297 

of  these  same  "Systems1'  in  which  the  birds  are  car- 
ried, according  to  the  testimony,  in  flocks  of  many 
hundreds.  In  the  latter  case,  profits  more  than  four 
times  as  great  as  those  gained  in  the  Australian  tests 
are  claimed !  Prices  of  eggs  average  higher  here 
recently,  so  that  this  may  account  for  one  half  of  the 
discrepancy.  Where  the  rest  may  come  in,  is,  I  think, 
a  good  problem  for  the  Beginner  to  study ! 

The  Beginner  would  do  well,  also,  to  consider,  briefly, 
a  single  sentence  in  the  reports  from  Australia  as  to 
losses  in  the  flock  :  "  The  general  mortality  of  the  tests 
is  practically  all  caused  by  ovarian  weakness."  This 
can  mean  only  one  thing,  viz.,  that,  in  the  effort  to 
stimulate,  through  scores  of  generations,  the  laying 
capacity  of  our  domestic  birds,  we  have  put  such  a 
strain  upon  the  organs  of  reproduction  that  weakness  in 
the  female  often  shows  there  first,  even  in  such  lots  as 
have  been  especially  selected  for  testing,  and  are  pre- 
sumably above  average  in  vigor  of  constitution. 

But  what  is  the  conclusion  ?  Man,  in  general,  keeps 
hens  primarily,  not  for  pleasure,  but  for  profit  from  their 
product.  If  he  cannot  get  the  profit,  he  does  not  want 
the  birds,  except  as  a  matter  of  convenience.  We  can- 
not, then,  reverse  our  treatment,  so  as  not  to  require 
large  production.  And  if  this  be  the  case,  we  must 
make  every  effort  to  grow  lusty  stock,  to  give  the 
maximum  of  fresh  air  and  exercise  which  make  for 
vigorous  health,  and  to  show  at  least  some  reasonable- 
ness of  mind  in  our  requirements  as  to  production. 

In  one  of  our  State  Bulletins,  not  long  ago,  a  report  of 
above  nineteen  per  cent  of  losses  during  about  fifteen 
months  was  given  out.  If  any  practical  handler  of  fowls 


298  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

for  profit  were  to  meet  with  such  losses,  he  would  feel 
obliged  to  give  up  poultry  keeping.  To  the  contrary, 
however,  it  is  found  true  that  some  who  in  former  years 
argued  that  poultry  did  not  pay  its  handlers,  are  now 
talking  about  the  great  profits  in  poultry.  Actual 


Curtain-Front  Laying  Competition  House,  Connecticut  Agricultural  College, 
Storrs.     All  These  Houses  Are  New,  and  All  Alike 


annual  losses,  with  average  good  handling,  need  not  go 
above  four  or  five  per  cent.  One  firm  claims  a  loss  of 
less  than  one  per  cent,  in  the  laying  stock. 

The  deductions  which  the  manager  of  the  Australian 
tests  made  at  the  close  of  the  eighth  of  the  series,  briefly 
given,  are  as  follows  :  — 

a.  Egg  production  will  pay  well. 

b.  Poultry  farming  demands  only  small  areas. 

c.  It  can  be  made  to  pay,  even  when  buying  all  the 
feeds. 

d.  Good  strains  of  good  breeds  pay  best. 

e.  The   fewer  the   number   of   breeds   handled,   the 
more  improvement. 


PRACTICAL  LAYING   CONTESTS  299 

f.  Small  pens  (in  numbers)  give  best  results. 

g.  Varied  diet  is  best,  but  maize  is  profitable,  in  fair 
proportion. 

h.    Abundance  of  feed  is  safer  than  skimping. 

One  of  the  American  Competitions  to  which  attention 
was  called  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter  has  just  taken 
shape  as  these  lines  are  written.  As  in  Australia,  a 
daily  has  come  forward  to  finance  the  project.  It  takes 
the  large  risks,  but  plans  to  make  good  for  itself  by 
charging  a  stiff  entrance  fee  of  $25  per  pen.  This 
periodical  is  known  as  The  Philadelphia  North  American. 
Connecticut  Agricultural  College,  Storrs,  Connecticut, 
has  accepted  the  responsibility  and  the  work  of  conduct- 
ing the  competitions.  Buildings  have  gone  up  on  ground 
which  is  fresh,  not  having  carried  poultry  heretofore. 
Entries  are  from  the  United  States,  Canada,  New 
Brunswick,  and  England.  There  is  a  list  of  worth-while 
prizes,  and  the  public  hopes  much  from  the  project.  An 
Advisory  Board,  comprising  the  names  of  a  number  of 
the  best  known  poultry  raisers,  instructors,  etc.,  will 
share  the  planning  and  the  responsibility.  Professor 
Frederick  H.  Stoneburn,  of  the  Agricultural  College, 
is  brimful  of  enthusiasm  and  will  do  his  utmost  to  make 
good,  as  he  has  always  done  even  when  less  well 
equipped  and  with  only  his  own  state  to  please. 

Just  before  the  news  of  this  contest  of  international 
interest  was  given  out,  the  state  of  Missouri  advertised 
a  competition,  national  in  character,  to  go  through  at  the 
State  Experiment  Station,  Mountain  Grove,  Missouri, 
under  the  charge  of  the  Secretary  of  the  State  Poultry 
Association,  T.  E.  Quisenberry.  1912  promises  to  be 


PRACTICAL  LAYING   CONTESTS 


301 


decidedly  an  interesting  year,  and  the  Beginner  of  1913 
and  later  years  may  find  knowledge  accessible  to  him  which 
no  Beginner  might  obtain  theretofore.  Poultry  history  is 
making  so  fast  that  portions  of  this  chapter  have  been 
rewritten  twice  since  the  first  casting.  As  an  instance 
of  this  very  point,  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  and  Maryland  have 


The  Black  Orpington   Leading  Pen,  Early  in  Missouri  Competition,  at  Feed 
Time.      (Courtesy  of  Missouri  Experiment  Station) 

made  state  appropriations  since  the  government  list  was 
compiled  and  since  the  chapters  of  this  book  were  begun, 
early  in  1911.  Also,  the  first  reports  from  the  newly 
instituted  competitions  have  begun  to  come  in,  just 
before  this  book  goes  to  press.  In  the  more  northern 
competition,  in  Connecticut,  the  White  Leghorns  are 
ahead  (5  English  birds  at  that)  with  a  record  of  68  eggs 


302  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

for  the  month ;  the  best  that  100  pens  could  do  in  the 
dull,  discouraging  month  of  November. 

Leading  the  131  pens  in  the  Competition  in  the 
warmer  state  of  Missouri,  a  pen  of  Black  Orpingtons 
made,  in  November,  a  record  of  101  eggs.  The  next 
best  record  was  82  eggs  from  a  pen  of  Silver  Wyandottes 
(the  original  Wyandottes).  Other  pens  even  of  Leg- 
horns have  made  records  of  3,  2,  i,  and  alas!  zero.  A 
report  from  Australia  appearing  at  the  same  time 
showed  twelve  pens  of  White  Leghorns,  five  pens  of 
Black  Orpingtons,  one  pen  of  Silver  Wyandottes,  and  one 
pen  of  Barred  Rocks,  making  records  of  more  than  600 
eggs  per  pen  for  the  first  six  months.  The  White  Leg- 
horns, let  the  Beginner  remember,  are  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean Class ;  the  Orpingtons  in  the  English  Class,  and 
the  others  in  the  American  Class.  The  Asiatics  do  not 
appear  as  a  Class,  but  their  blood  is  in  all  but  the  Leg- 
horns—  that  is,  in  all  these  general-purpose  birds.  The 
showing  is  good  for  the  general-purpose  varieties. 


XXIV 
QUALITY   IN    WIRE    FENCING 

Complaints  of  Short  Life  of  Fencing  —  Users  Partly  Re- 
sponsible—  Salt  Air  Deteriorating  —  Five  Points  on 
Quality  —  Manufacturer  and  Consumer  —  The  Com- 
moner Grades  —  Improvements  —  Heavier  Wires  — 
Favorite  Meshes. 

THIS  matter  of  wire  fencing  and  its  quality,  so  impor- 
tant to  nearly  all  who  work  with  poultry,  has  been  en- 
tirely overlooked  or  ignored  in  all  the  poultry  books 
with  which  I  am  familiar.  Indeed,  the  two  which  claim 
especially  to  be  books  of  reference  on  all  poultry  topics 
have  not  a  word  to  say  about  fencings.  The  United 
States  government,  on  the  contrary,  has  found  that  the 
farmers  and  poultry  raisers  of  the  country  were  being 
fleeced  to  such  an  extent  in  the  matter  of  light  wire 
fencings — generally  spoken  of  as  wire  net,  or  wire 
netting — that  it  has  put  out  a  special  information  Bul- 
letin, on  "The  Corrosion  of  Fence  Wire."  The  Agri- 
cultural Yearbook  of  1906  has  this  reference  to  the 
work,  showing  the  reason  for  its  inception,  and  the  im- 
mediate outcome :  — 

"Owing  to  the  numerous  complaints  of  farmers  in  re- 
gard to  the  rapid  deterioration  of  the  modern  fence  wire 
in  comparison  with  that  manufactured  in  former  years, 
an  investigation  of  the  subject  was  begun,  to  see  what 
could  be  done  to  remedy  the  defect.  Farmers'  Bulletin 
239  contains  a  report  of  this  investigation,  which  has 
aroused  the  interest  of  manufacturers  and  has  deter- 

303 


304  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

mined  some  of  them  to  take  active  steps  toward  pro- 
ducing a  fence  wire  more  resistant  to  atmospheric 
corrosion." 

The  Secretary  of  Agriculture's  report  for  1909  (Year- 
book) contained  a  full  discussion  of  this  important  mat- 
ter, and  it  is  from  this  source  that  the  technical  informa- 
tion given  herewith  is  drawn. 

Wire  fencing,  to  the  poultryman,  means  the  close- 
woven  netting  of  wire,  of  which  the  commonest  type  is 
a  uniform  hexagonal  web  with  heavier  wires  at  the 
edges.  This  fencing  comes  in  all  widths  from  one  foot 
to  six  feet,  in  various  spacings  and  in  various  weights  of 
wire,  of  which  that  known  as  No.  19  is  the  smallest  that 
gives  satisfaction.  Therefore,  this  is  the  popular  size; 
since  it  is  the  cheapest  that  will  "do."  General  testi- 
mony is  to  the  fact  that  these  nettings,  which  " might 
reasonably  be  expected  [see  Report]  to  last  for  ten  or 
fifteen  years,"  will  become  nearly  worthless  through 
rusting,  in  two  or  three  years.  Quite  possibly  the  users 
of  this  class  of  goods  are  not  discriminating  enough  as 
to  the  varying  effect  of  varying  conditions  on  such  fenc- 
ings. It  is  well  enough  known  that  the  "life"  of  such 
fencing  is  shorter  near  the  seashore,  or  near  large  cities 
and  manufacturing  plants  which  give  sulphurous  gases 
into  the  air.  And  even  in  ordinary  rural  conditions, 
there  is  a  considerable  difference  in  the  life  of  wires,  due 
to  general  strength  of  prevailing  winds  and  the  amount 
of  abrasive  dust  which  these  winds  carry.  Where  sand 
is  much  in  the  air,  deterioration  is  hastened.  But,  with 
all  allowance  made,  there  still  has  been  plenty  of  reason 
for  complaint. 

Fencings  bought  of  dealers  who  have  claimed  to  carry 


QUALITY  IN  WIRE   FENCING 


305 


only  the  best  have  gone  to  pieces  in  two  years.  And 
the  heaviest  wire  fencing  known  to  me  —  a  fence  ad- 
vertised all  over  the  United  States  for  half  a  generation 
at  least  as  the  standard  of  quality  in  manufacturing — 
has  rusted  completely  away  in  its  lighter  wires  in  seven 
years,  in  a  location  perhaps  20  miles  from  salt  water. 


Wire  Netting.     Darker  Wires  Show  Rust.     Rusted  While  in  the  Roll 

It  is  a  common  belief,  and  we  hear  frequent  testimony, 
that  the  wire  manufactured  twenty  years  ago  or  more 
resisted  corrosion  far  better  than  the  wires  now  pro- 
duced. This  scarcely  touches  the  matter  as  it  now 
stands,  since  the  iron  wire  then  used  has  passed  entirely 
out  of  use,  in  favor  of  the  steel  wire. 

Five  points  are  noted  as  affecting  the  rapidity  with 


306  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

which  a  given  fencing  will  rust  under  normal  conditions. 
These  are :  — 

a.  The  actual  quality  and  the  characteristics  of  the 
steel  used  in  the  manufacture. 

b.  The  real   character  and  the  quality   of   the  zinc 
(spelter)  used  for  galvanizing  the  wire. 

c.  The  evenness  of  the  zinc  covering. 

d.  The   weight  of   zinc  —  that    is,    the  thickness   of 
the  covering. 

e.  The  weight  or  gauge  of  the  wire  itself. 

It  may  be  thought  that  these  are  all  matters  for  which 
the  manufacturers  are  directly  responsible.  While, 
strictly  speaking,  this  is  true,  in  actual  commerce  with 
wire  fencings  it  is  yet  the  buyer  who  fixes  the  quality 
commonly  used,  because  he  so  commonly  insists  on  low 
price  as  the  first  consideration.  Manufacturers  are  now 
making  better  steel,  and  are  so  alive  to  the  necessity  of 
this  that  the  quality  is  likely  at  least  to  hold  as  at  pres- 
ent, if  not  to  improve.  The  quality  of  the  zinc  is  a 
problem  not  yet  fully  solved.  But  great  gains  have  been 
made  in  evenness  of  covering  the  wire,  within  the  last 
few  years.  Heavier  covering  can  also  be  produced. 
But,  as  regards  these  two  points  latest  noted,  the  buyer 
exercises  as  much  responsibility  as  the  maker  of  the 
fencing,  because  only  a  given  amount  of  zinc  will  cling 
to  the  wire,  and  a  fine  wire  cannot  be  made  to  carry  as 
much  as  a  coarser  wire.  Hence,  the  lighter,  cheaper 
fencing  cannot  be  as  well  made  as  the  heavier  one. 

The  consumers  of  fencings  of  this  class  largely  de- 
mand a  product  with  a  certain  price  limit.  It  is  to  the 
interest  of  the  maker  and  the  middleman  to  supply  that 
call  which  will  make  for  them  the  most  sales.  Thus, 


QUALITY  IN  WIRE   FENCING 


307 


the  users  of  wire  fencings,  in  demanding  light  wire  and 
low  prices,  fix  the  two  factors  which  lead  to  the  rapid 
corrosion  of  the  fencings.  No  dealer  carries  all  weights 
and  widths,  since  it  means  too  much  idle  capital,  and  too 
much  used  space  for  storage.  He  will  carry  those 
which  have  the  best  demand  in  his  locality,  in  fullest 
stock,  though  generally  advising  a  good  quality.  This 
advice  the  suspicious  buyer  believes,  too  often,  to  be  a 


Barley,  Growing  in  Six  by  Ten  Foot  Frame,  in  Summer  Yard.     Stiff  Netting 
and  Good  Bracing  are  Imperative 

trick  to  get  more  money  out  of  him.  He  is  likely  to  be. 
cram  ped  for  money  anyhow,  perhaps  carrying  a  mortgage. 
But,  no  matter  what  a  special  buyer  wants,  he  is  likely 
to  have  to  take  what  the  majority  demand;  since  the 
general  call  influences  the  stock  that  is  put  in.  Mr. 
A.  S.  Cushman,  Assistant  Director,  Office  of  Public 
Roads,  who  had  charge  of  the  fencing  investigation, 


368  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


states  his  own  belief  that  lighter  gauge  wires  than  No.  9 
or  No.  10  should  never  be  used  for  farm  fencing,  except 
in  the  case  of  poultry  and  rabbit  inclosures.  And 
heavier  than  No.  9  wire  is  not  considered  practical. 

The  limit  is  there- 
fore narrow.  Mr. 
Cushman  states  that 
No.  9  wire  is  heavy 
enough  for  all  prac- 
tical purposes,  and 
that  it  can  be  made 
satisfactorily  for 
farm  use  in  the 
"mild"  steel;  which, 
contrary  to  general 
impression,  is  as  re- 
sistant to  corrosion 
as  the  high-carbon, 
more  springy  steel, 
as  well  as  being 
easier  to  handle. 
His  opinion  is  that 
this  low-carbon  stock 
is  really  a  better  all- 
around  material  for  fencing  wire  than  the  spring  steel. 

The  two  common  grades  of  poultry  netting  made  by 
manufacturers  differ  in  that  one  is  galvanized  before, 
the  other  after,  weaving.  The  wire  galvanized  before 
weaving  is  usually  2O-gauge  stock,  is  considered  "  not 
fit  to  use,"  and  should  not  be  bought  at  all  if  one  desires 
a  lasting  fence.  It  is  easy  enough  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  two  grades,  as  the  fencing  galvanized,  as  it 


Full  Roll  of  Wire  Net.     Patent  Drinking 
Fount 


QUALITY  IN  WIRE   FENCING  309 

should   be,    after   weaving,  will   not  untwist,  since   its 
crossed  wires  are  stuck  together  by  the  coating. 

Improvement  in  methods  has,  in  recent  years,  enabled 
the  makers  to  put  on  heavier  coatings.  But  there  is 
one  objection  to  this,  in  that  heavy  coatings  incline  to 
make  cracks  at  joints  and  bends  of  the  web.  Both  the 
maker  and  the  user  having  made  this  criticism,  a  custom 
arose  of  wiping  the  zinc  coating  to  make  it  smooth  and 
even.  Thus,  most  of  it  was  wiped  off  in  some  instances. 
This  rather  points  to  the  conclusion  that  roughening  at 
bends,  etc.,  is  something  of  a  guarantee  of  a  good  coating. 

Contrasting  the  advantages  to  both  producer  and 
consumer  in  the  use  of  light  and  heavy  wires,  the  Re- 
port says  :  "  The  use  of  the  heavier  wire  enables  the 
manufacturer  to  work  up  a  larger  tonnage  of  metal 
without  material  increase  in  labor  and  other  cost  charges, 
and  he  may  also  expect  to  earn  a  better  reputation  for  his 
products  than  he  has  hitherto  enjoyed.  The  consumer 
will  be  repaid  in  the  longer  life  of  his  fences  and  a  higher 
efficiency  in  the  objects  for  which  the  structure  is  designed. 
It  is  a  mistaken  idea  to  suppose  that  because  the  use  of 
heavier  wire  operates  to  the  advantage  of  the  manufac- 
turer, the  selection  of  light  wire  must  necessarily  operate 
to  the  advantage  of  the  consumer.  A  light  fence  which 
must  soon  be  renewed  might  possibly  be  considered  an 
advantage  to  the  manufacturer,  if  there  were  only  one 
kind  of  fence  available,  or  if  he  entirely  controlled  the 
market.  But,  a  consumer  is  not  likely  to  repeat  a  failure 
with  a  particular  brand  of  fence  ;  and  as  the  competition 
in  the  manufacture  of  wire  is  especially  keen  in  this 
country,  it  is  at  once  apparent  that  fences  which  rust 
rapidly  work  against  the  interest  of  all  concerned. 


310 


THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


If  a  wire  fence  needs  to  keep  out  trespassers,  as  is  often 
the  case  with  poultry  fences,  a  strand  of  good  barbed 


A  Home-made    Coop,    Original    Design.     Sliding  Panel,  and    Back    Corners 
Beveled  Off 


wire,  set  six  to  eight  inches  above  the  netting,  but  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  post,  will  be  found  quite  effective. 
The  longer  one  keeps  poultry,  especially  if  he  be  a 


QUALITY  IN   WIRE   FENCING  311 

fancier,  or  if  he  be  a  town  poultryman,  or  one  in  business 
commercially  for  a  living  from  poultry,  the  greater  be- 
comes his  devotion  to  wire  netting — good  wire  netting. 
Permanent  fences,  pen  divisions,  temporary  runs,  summer 
coops,  line  fences,  supplementary  inclosures,  etc.,  may  be 
constructed  almost  entirely  of  wire  net.  Probably  the 
most  useful  type,  price  considered,  is  the  four-foot,  two- 
inch  mesh  kind.  For  confining  small  chicks,  however, 
the  two-foot  width  in  one-inch  mesh  is  the  favorite.  It  is 
much  higher  in  price  proportionate  to  width,  however, 
than  the  two-inch  mesh  web.  The  three-inch  mesh  goods 
are  ,apt  to  be  in  2O-gauge  wire,  and  thus  they  have  two 
causes  for  being  less  firm  than  the  popular,  two-inch 
mesh  grade.  But  these  can  be  used  for  confining  larger 
birds  like  geese  and  turkeys.  The  question  of  width  is 
a  rather  troublesome  one.  A  fence  needs  a  bottom  board, 
at  least,  though  some  dispense  with  the  top  strip.  High- 
flyers demand  a  seven-foot  fence.  The  six-foot  width 
looks  much  neater,  and  is  more  shipshape  generally. 
But  many  prefer  to  use  a  four-foot  net,  with  a  two-foot 
strip  above  it,  because  the  six-foot  strips  are  so  difficult  to 
handle  and  hang.  One  poultryman  tells  me  he  finds  the 
best  way  to  hang  a  wire  fence  is  to  drive_  nails  in  the  posts 
where  the  top  should  come — at  a  measured  height  —  and 
catch  the  upper  wires  on  these  nails  ;  the  rest  is  easy,  all 
except  the  trick  of  learning  how  to  drive  the  staples  prop- 
erly, withouttheir  dropping,  breaking,  or  going  in  crooked. 


XXV 
DUCKS    AND   GEESE 

Beginning  with  Ducks  —  A  Favorable  Location  —  Few 
Losses  —  Few  Desirable  Breeds  —  Pekins,  Runners, 
Orpingtons  —  Runner  Record  Notable — Above  200 
Three  Successive  Years  —  Extreme  Claims  —  Fowls 
for  Feathers— Testing  White  Eggs  —  Feed  —  The 
New  Coat  —  Ducks  as  a  Specialty  —  Popular  Breeds 
of  Geese  —  Goose  Farming  —  Hens  as  Hatchers  — 
Pasturage  —  Beauty  Breeds  —  Prices 

IT  seems  to  be  true  that  many  Beginners  take  up  ducks 
and  geese  with  diffidence  and  with  fear,  believing  the 
work  to  be  more  difficult  than  the  raising  of  chicks.  This 
is  so  far  from  true  that  the  losses  with  waterfowl  are  on 
the  average  proportionately  much  less  after  they  are 
hatched  than  with  domestic  hens,  turkeys,  or  guineas. 
Indeed,  some  one  recently  suggested  that  it  would  be 
much  easier  for  a  Beginner  to  start  with  ducks  than  with 
hens.  With  natural  water  privileges,  the  work  is  less,  the 
growth  is  at  least  twice  as  rapid,  and  the  losses  far  less. 
These  are  certainly  three  very  strong  arguments  in  favor 
of  waterfowl. 

A  favorable  location  for  duck  growing  has  a  bit  of 
land  sloping  toward  a  stream  deep  enough  to  allow 
swimming  and  diving  delights.  Such  a  place  being 
available,  one  who  delights  in  poultry  has  missed  some 
of  his  privileges  if  he  has  not  tried  raising  water  fowl. 
There  are  many  clever  midgets  of  fancy  ducks,  beautiful 
for  color,  fascinating  for  sprightly  grace,  sympathetically 

312 


DUCKS  AND   GEESE  313 

linked  to  man  through  their  apparent  pleasure  ir\  living, 
and  their  delight  in  companionship.  There  are  several 
places  in  this  country  where  these,  together  with  pheas- 
ants, and  other  marvelous  fancy  fowl  can  be  had.  I 
shall  speak  in  detail  of  only  a  few  admittedly  profitable 
varieties  of  ducks  and  geese. 

According  to  many  writers,  there  is  only  one  duck  — 
the  imperial  White  Pekin,  which  is  most  regarded,  not 
for  its  dignity,  not  for  the  egg-laying  capacity  especially 
in  itself,  but  for  the  capacity  to  produce  quickly  a  heavy 
and  fat  quantity  of  " green  duck"  for  a  waiting  market. 
Hastings  in  1909  gave  one  hundred  thousand  victims  per 
annum  as  the  output  of  the  largest  duck  plants.  A 
recent  writer  calls  the  duck  a  "  machine-like  "  bird.  The 
places  which  grind  out  many  thousands  of  green  ducks, 
chiefly  Pekins,  are  quite  numerous ;  yet  the  margin 
between  cost  and  sale  price  is  not  large,  and  the  large 
incomes  come  to  those  who  have  the  know  how  of  the 
business  and  who  make  a  goodly  amount  through  small 
individual  profits  on  very  large  numbers  of  birds. 

But  because  the  losses  are  few  and  the  chances  for 
using  cheap  feeds  very  good,  there  is  an  excellent  open- 
ing for  a  limited  number  of  growers  to  grow  ducks  for 
the  later  market,  for  the  feathers,  and,  in  one  variety, 
for  the  eggs ;  also,  in  the  case  of  Pekins,  Indian  Run- 
ners, and  perhaps  Buff  Orpingtons,  for  the  sale  of  fancy 
breeding  stock.  I  do  not  mention  Cayugas,  Musco- 
veys,  Rouens,  etc.,  in  this  connection  because,  though 
Standard  breeds,  they  are  not  popular  and  —  although 
this  statement  may  seem  amazing  to  the  Beginner  — 
the  popular  breeds  are  the  most  profitable  for  the  aver- 
age fancier.  This  because  only  here  and  there  a  man 


314  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

has  the  genius  to  become  an  exceptional  raiser  of  non- 
popular  birds  at  exceptional  prices.     Put  it  this  way  : 


Silo  for  Beets.     These  Form  a  Cheap  Feed  for  Yarded  Stock 

It  is  a  waste  of  time  and  of  capital  to  raise  that  which  is 
not  wanted.     Does  not  that  ring  like  common  sense  ? 

If  the  would-be  Beginner  with  ducks  does  not  want 
the  Pekin,  he  is  wise  to  restrict  his  choice  to  the  new 


DUCKS  AND   GEESE 


315 


Indian  Runners  or  the  still  newer  Buff  Orpingtons, 
both  of  which  make  their  bid  for  favor  on  the  strength 
of  their  being  superior  layers.  Both  have  imbued  their 
owners  with  sufficient  confidence  to  lead  them  to  enter 
their  birds  in  the  Australian  laying  competitions.  This 
is  a  most  extreme  test. 


A  Record  Strain  of  Penciled  "  Walton  "  Indian  Runners. 
Benigna  G.  Kalb) 


(Photo  by  Mrs. 


The  Indian  Runners  have  won  first  in  three  of  these 
competitions  successively,  each  time  with  official  record 
of  two  hundred  and  over  up  to  two  hundred  seventeen. 
The  Buff  Orpingtons  claim  one  winning  which  I  have 
not  seen  vouched  for  in  print,  but  for  which  the  claim 
is  doubtless  legitimate.  There  is  a  certain  "  Record 
Duck,"  an  Indian  Runner  owned  by  one  Mr.  Scott  of 
New  Zealand,  for  which  the  enormous  output  of  three 
hundred  twenty  eggs  in  one  year  is  claimed,  and  another 
is  "  guaranteed  "  to  have  laid  three  hundred  and  thirty- 


3l6  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

nine.  A  claim  of  three  hundred  thirty-four  eggs  has 
been  attached  to  a  certain  Massachusetts  hen  in  this 
country.  This  and  the  above  claims  for  the  Indian 
Runner  duck  are  the  highest  laying  claims  I  have  ever 
seen.  The  "  Record  Duck "  had  six  descendants  in 
public  competition  and  making  fine  records  of  their 
own  at  last  advices.  Between  this  three  hundred  twenty 
egg  claimed  record,  which  no  Runner  breeder  would 
think  of  looking  at  as  possible  to  the  average  commer- 
cial worker,  and  the  one  hundred  fifty  egg  known  relia- 
ble record  for  these  clucks  kept  in  large  flocks,  there  is 
a  painfully  wide  margin,  somewhere  along  which  the 
average  worker  would  probably  land.  The  most  fre- 
quent claim  for  pens  of  half-a-dozen  or  so  is  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  one  hundred  eighty  per  duck  (I  have  known 
of  averages  above  two  hundred  in  this  country). 
This  ought  to  insure  a  profit  of  two  dollars  or  over  for 
each  duck  kept,  and,  as  the  losses  are  few  after  the  easy 
trick  of  handling  is  learned,  it  offers  a  good  chance  to 
those  who  have  proper  facilities.  This  duck  seems  to 
have  appealed  especially  to  the  women,  and  there  are 
numbers  of  them  in  the  country  already  who  are  earn- 
ing a  good  living  for  their  families  from  these  ducks 
alone. 

Not  long  ago,  I  had  some  correspondence  with  a  Vir- 
ginia farmer  to  whom  I  offered  a  discount  on  a  book  I 
was  selling.  He  replied  that  he  could  make  all  the 
money  he  wanted  from  his  Indian  Runners,  and  that  if 
he  handled  my  book  he  would  like  to  do  it  without 
profit  for  the  sake  of  his  customers. 

If  one  were  to  raise  waterfowl  for  the  feathers  espe- 
cially, the  white  varieties  like  Pekins,  Aylesburys,  White 


DUCKS  AND   GEESE  317 

Indian  Runners  (when  these  have  increased  sufficiently) 
in  ducks,  and  White  Chinas  or  Embdens  in  geese  are  to 
be  preferred.  It  is  admitted  that  plucking  the  birds  is 
not  desirable  when  laying  is  expected  or  when  the  car- 
cass is  soon  to  be  marketed.  This  is  reasonable ;  for 
the  feed  that  goes  to  produce  feathers  can  hardly  be  ex- 
pected to  produce  at  the  same  time  eggs  or  flesh.  In 
practice,  it  comes  about  that  the  combination  method  is 
pretty  sure  to  be  followed.  With  Pekins,  however, 
which  are  only  moderate  layers,  it  is  often  feasible  to 
pluck  the  birds  at  least  twice  in  the  later  season.  Ducks 
that  are  expected  to  lay  in  autumn  cannot  be  plucked 
without  injury  to  the  laying  forces. 

It  is,  as  a  rule,  better  to  hatch  ducks  by  means  of  a 
hen,  a  rather  moist  location  being  favorable.  The  nest 
may  be  made  of  soft  hay,  on  the  ground  in  a  floorless 
building,  which  is  so  located  that  water  cannot  run 
under  the  walls  to  set  everything  afloat.  Ten  eggs  are 
enough  for  all  but  the  largest  hens.  Modern  poultry- 
men  test  all  eggs  between  the  fifth  and  the  tenth  days. 
The  eggs  from  the  penciled  or  English  Indian  Run- 
ners, which  are  pearly  white  and  almost  translucent, 
may  be  tested  on  the  fifth  day.  The  infertiles  are  to  be 
removed.  These  make  an  excellent  partial  food  for 
small  chicks.  Duck  eggs  require  twenty-eight  days'  in- 
cubation. The  ducklings  are  left  under  the  hen  until 
all  are  hatched  and  dry,  when  they  may  be  removed 
during  the  period  of  sunshine  to  a  coop  floored  with 
boards,  over  which  are  sifted  sand  or  dry  earth  and  an 
inch  layer  of  soft  chaff.  The  coop  should  have  an  at- 
tached grass  run,  its  inclosure  at  least  a  foot  high,  and  it 
ought  to  have  a  secure  front.  The  youngsters  may  not 


3lS  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

need  any  food  till  the  next  day  after  cooping.  The  hens 
should  have  corn  and  water.  The  ducklings  need 
warmth  chiefly,  if  the  weather  be  cool;  if  hot,  they 
need  shade,  with  a  chance  to  get  into  the  sun  as  the 
day  cools.  As  soon  as  they  need  feed  they  will  take  it 
when  offered.  Bread  soaked  in  milk  is  the  best  food  to 
begin  with.  After  this  a  little  bran  can  be  added,  with 
a  little  meat  and  sand,  and  soaked  cracked  corn  at  night. 
Five  per  cent  of  meat  at  first  is  the  standard  amount. 
A  large  spoonful  of  sand  in  two  quarts  of  feed  once  a 
day  is  a  fair  quantity.  Very  fine  grit  is  even  better 
than  sand.  Charcoal  helps  to  keep  them  in  good  thrift. 
A  handful  occasionally  is  all  that  will  be  required. 
Water  must  be  always  before  them  in  vessels  such  that 
they  can  wash  their  nostrils,  yet  not  soak  their  bodies 
while  still  downy.  As  they  grow,  the  little  run  must  be 
enlarged  or  a  fresh  one  provided.  They  need  the  hen 
only  two  weeks  or  so  in  mild  weather.  When  feathered, 
which  will  be  from  seven  weeks  onward,  they  may  be 
allowed  to  swim  if  water  privileges  are  at  hand.  It  is  to 
be  remembered  that  this  water  privilege,  good  as  it  is, 
has  also  its  disadvantages ;  since  vermin  commonly  fol- 
low the  streams  and  haunt  the  ponds.  Hence,  if  these 
are  troublesome,  close  yarding,  with  security  at  night, 
will  be  the  price  of  success. 

When  the  young  are  ten  or  eleven  weeks  old  they 
will  prepare  to  assume  a  new  coat.  If  to  be  sold  for 
market,  just  before  this  molt  is  the  time  to  dispose  of 
every  one  that  is  up  to  average,  as  they  are  commonly 
fatter  and  better  at  this  period  than  at  any  other.  If 
not  sold  then,  they  must  be  kept  on  until  the  new  coat 
matures,  several  weeks  later, 


320  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

The  Indian  Runners  have  been  known  to  lay  at  less 
than  four  and  a  half  months  of  age.  The  more  usual 
period  is  from  five  to  five  and  one  half  months,  and  in 
case  of  late  hatching  they  sometimes  go  seven  months 
before  laying,  beginning  in  February,  if  not  earlier. 

The  Beginner  who  desires  to  make  a  specialty  of  ducks 
will  be  wise  to  buy  a  duck  book  and  to  become  familiar 
with  its  contents  before  investing  or  attempting  the  work. 
Rankin's  "  Duck  Book  "  is  an  old  standard  authority, 
and  the  present  writer  publishes  a  small  book  on  Indian 
Runners. 

The  American  Standard  of  Perfection  recognizes  seven 
varieties  of  geese  in  six  breeds  :  Embden,  Toulouse, 
African,  Chinese,  Canadian,  or  wild  and  Egyptian.  The 
decorative  or  fancy  sort  known  as  Sebastopol  is  not  a 
Standard  variety.  The  adult  gander  in  Toulouse,  Emb- 
dens,  and  Africans  has  a  standard  weight  of  twenty  pounds. 
The  adult  Chinese  and  Canadian  ganders  weigh  up  to 
twelve  pounds  and  the  Egyptians  to  ten  pounds. 

I  know  of  no  other  of  the  lower  animals  so  nearly 
human  in  many  of  its  characteristics  as  the  goose.  The 
Beginner  who  learns  as  much  as  possible  of  the  habits 
of  geese  before  attempting  goose  culture  is  the  one  who 
will  have  best  promise  of  success.  It  is  quite  necessary 
to  know  what  might  be  called  the  "  habits  of  thought." 
Geese  are  more  stubborn  than  even  the  most  stubborn 
of  mankind  —  which  seems  utterly  needless  —  and  it 
often  becomes  necessary  to  use  finesse  and  skill  in  order 
to  lead  them  on  in  proper  subjection  while  still  permit- 
ting them  to  follow  their  own  whims  sufficiently  to  render 
them  content  and  happy. 

Expert  poultrymen  are  a  unit  in  agreeing  that  com- 


DUCKS  AND   GEESE  321 

fort  and  content  in  fowls  are  what  really  turn  the  scale 
toward  profit.  Comfort  and  content  necessarily  include 
good  handling,  because  they  mean  health ;  but  that 
sympathy  which  may  be  established  between  a  handler 
and  his  charges  seems  stronger  among  geese  than  with 
any  other  farm  stock,  unless  it  be  horses.  The  dog  would 
be  excepted,  doubtless,  but  he  does  not  usually  count  as 
"  stock."  In  view  of  the  fact  that  geese  are  long  lived 
and  that  they  grow  (even  more  than  other  animals)  to 
be  confirmed  in  their  "  cranks  "  as  they  advance  in  age, 
it  becomes  of  prime  importance  to  establish  at  the  first 
and  to  preserve  harmonious  relations  with  them.  If, 
when  young,  they  contract  an  aversion  for,  or  a  hatred 
of,  any  member  of  the  family,  it  seems  to  become  an  in- 
stinct with  them,  for  it  can  seldom  be  overcome,  and  it 
will  be  transmitted  to  all  the  progeny  indefinitely. 

Having  become  acquainted  with  the  tendencies  and 
habits  of  the  goose  family  and  having,  in  addition,  re- 
solved firmly  to  work  in  accordance  with  these  and  with 
sympathy  toward  this  so  nearly  human  animal,  the  Be- 
ginner is  ready  to  acquire  some  geese.  Just  because 
geese  are  such  creatures  of  habit,  it  is  often  best  to  be- 
gin with  eggs,  in  order  that  one  may  form  their  habits 
to  suit  himself.  Hens  are  best  as  hatchers.  There  may 
be  need  of  both  patience  and  some  expense  in  beginning, 
because  good  eggs  are  difficult  to  obtain,  and  young  stock 
may  nearly  fail  in  its  first  year's  breeding. 

A  Beginner  may  do  well  to  buy  a  good  pair  or  trio  in 
the  fall  and  to  devote  the  first  summer  previsionally  to 
making  acquaintance  with  his  stock,  raising  the  few 
young  which  they  may  present  to  him  and  bringing  the 
breeders  to  the  proper  age  for  good  regular  and  reliable 


322  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

production.  The  goose  produces  through  such  an  ex- 
tended period  that  one  can  afford  to  have  her  take  more 
time  to  become  well  matured,  but  if  one  would  be  sure 
of  the  training  of  his  geese  he  must  raise  them  from  the 
egg  under  his  own  supervision. 

It  is  not  possible  to  buy  geese  in  the  spring,  in  many 
localities.  Winter  market  prices  are  high  and  winter 
feed  more  expensive  than  summer  feed,  while  production 
is  limited.  This  means  that  all  that  are  for  sale  will  be 
sold  in  early  autumn,  if  possible,  although  as  breeders 
they  cannot  be  sold  until  the  sex  shows  itself  and  they 
are  matured.  The  expert  will  ascertain  the  sex  by 
physical  examination,  using  a  hand  magnifier. 

Since  the  goose  is  a  cheap  fowl  to  keep,  it  is  better 
for  those  who  contemplate  what  may  be  called  "  goose 
farming  "  to  buy  either  the  big  Toulouse  or  the  Embden. 
By  goose  farming  I  mean  raising  geese  chiefly  for  mar- 
ket in  rather  large  numbers.  I  have  before  me  the 
figures  from  a  goose  farm  in  Ireland  consisting  of  twenty 
well-watered  acres  on  which  thirty  geese  were  kept, 
from  which  the  gross  income  was  nearly  two  thousand 
dollars.  Some  eggs  from  this  farm  were  sold  for  hatch- 
ing ;  but  inasmuch  as  the  income  would  have  been 
larger  had  they  been  turned  into  geese  at  home,  this  need 
not  count  against  the  figures.  The  average  output  of 
eggs  from  this  farm,  which  carried  four  varieties,  was 
about  forty-one  per  goose.  This  is  higher  than  the 
general  average,  although  the  Chinese  geese  may  lay  as 
high  as  sixty  and  in  rarer  cases  seventy  or  above.  Tou- 
louse and  Embden  geese  on  the  average  probably  lay 
somewhere  near  twenty  to  twenty-five  under  common 
handling.  As  all  signs  fail  in  a  dry  time,  so  all  prophe- 


3  24 


THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


cies  with  regard  to  birds  must  at  times  be  at  fault. 
If  the  home  conditions  surrounding  them  are  especially 
good,  they  may  outdo  their  breed  average  very  conspic- 
uously ;  for  instance,  an  acquaintance  of  my  own  suc- 
ceeds in  getting  good  returns  from  young  geese  in  their 
first  year  of  breeding,  and  this  not  once  only,  but  as  a 
rule.  They  breed  well  year  after  year ;  but  they  have 
absolute  freedom,  water  privilege,  fine  grass  range,  and 
the  kindliest  treatment,  even  to  affection.  These  things 
do  count,  and  they  count  doubly  with  geese. 


Embden  Geese,  about  Four  Months  Old 

Young  geese  are  usually  mated  in  the  fall.  They 
tend  to  mate  in  pairs.  The  young  are  best  so  mated. 
In  older  stock  it  is  customary  to  allow  two,  three,  and 
sometimes  four  females  to  each  male.  Once  the  birds 
have  accepted  their  mates,  the  matings  are  difficult  to 
break;  indeed,  virtually  impossible,  without  locating  the 
birds  out  of  sight  and  hearing  of  their  former  mates. 
It  is  to  be  kept  constantly  in  mind  that  change  is  the 
one  thing  which  the  goose  most  abhors.  She  is  a 
creature  of  place  and  association  and  habit,  and  any 
change  in  these  upsets  all  her  plan  of  life. 


DUCKS  AND   GEESE  325 

Goose  farming  and  goose  raising  can  hardly  become 
a  wholesale  matter,  though  goose  fattening  almost 
reaches  this  plane  at  times.  A  good-sized  hen  must 
have  a  well-shaped  nest  if  she  is  to  cover  six  Embden 
or  Toulouse  eggs  properly.  I  find  a  cheese  box  is  a 
most  excellent  nest  container  for  this  purpose.  For  the 
hen's  comfort,  a  nest  for  goose  eggs  must  be  deeper 
than  is  permissible  with  other  eggs.  The  eggs  are  so 
large  that  otherwise  her  weight  must  bear  too  heavily 
upon  them,  or  she  must  constantly  support  herself  partly 
by  means  of  her  feet.  This  would  mean  torture  in  time, 
and  should  not  be  permitted. 

It  is  not  so  very  unusual  for  every  egg  to  produce  a 
gosling.  Moist  air  about  the  eggs  is  needed  for  proper 
hatching,  and  some  addition  of  warm  water  to  the  ground 
about  the  nest  during  the  last  three  days  may  help  the 
hatch.  The  shells  are  very  strong,  and  the  goslings 
may  need  assistance  in  getting  out.  They  must  not  be 
removed  from  the  nest  with  undue  haste,  as  they  are 
likely  to  be  several  days,  it  may  be,  in  getting  up  an 
interest  in  the  world  into  which  they  are  newly  come. 
When  they  are  ready  they  will  need  only  water  to  drink 
and  a  plot  of  short,  tender  grass  from  which  to  feed.  In 
trying  to  graze  they  will  gain  the  necessary  strength. 
The  young  will  thrive  and  grow  well  on  bread  soaked  in 
milk  ;  but  it  must  never  be  forgotten  that  their  natural 
food  is  what  we  call  "  pasture,"  —  that  is,  herbage  which 
they  may  graze  from  the  field  for  themselves.  Where 
grazing  conditions  are  not  good,  some  have  found  good 
help  in  feeding  cut  sweet-corn  stalks  and  leaves  and 
sprouted  oats.  Geese  are  especially  fond  of  both  of 
these. 


326  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

Goose  farmers  in  a  large  way  may  feel  that  it  is  a 
waste  of  time  to  incubate  the  eggs  under  hens.  In  such 
case,  they  set  the  geese  on  the  ground  where  they  have 
laid,  and  take  the  precaution  to  place  a  coop  or  perhaps 
a  lath  rack  over  the  sitter  to  ward  off  interference  from 
the  other  birds.  Turkey  hens  also  are  said  to  make 
excellent  mothers  for  goslings  —  about  a  dozen  eggs  form 
a  nestf ul  for  these.  Even  where  nests  are  on  the  ground, 
some  sprinkling  is  often  done  during  the  last  two  or 
three  days.  This  is  better  than  helping  the  goslings  out 
of  the  shell,  because  safer. 

When  the  geese  are  used  as  hatchers  it  is  necessary 
to  know  their  ways.  The  incubating  goose  or  brooding 
goose  permits  no  human  interference  and  is  but  a  vicious 
animal  towards  any  who  may  be  considered  enemies, 
though  tenderness  itself  to  her  young.  She  may  not 
feed  them,  but  both  she  and  the  male  will  exercise 
exceeding  care  for  their  protection.  The  hiss  of  the 
mother  goose  is  a  warning ;  if  not  heeded  it  is  quite 
likely  to  be  followed  by  attack,  and  the  unwary  foe  is 
rather  sure  to  be  the  greatest  sufferer  in  a  battle.  The 
blow  of  a  goose's  wings  may  leave  its  mark  on  tender 
flesh  for  six  months  or  even  more. 

While  it  is  to  be  insisted  that  grass  is  the  main  food 
for  geese,  two  light  feeds  of  barley  or  oats  a  day  are  a 
part  of  the  handling  of  some  expert  breeders,  from 
January  to  May.  They  say  that  by  this  means  the  goose 
which  would  naturally  lay  but  one  "clutch,"  may  be 
induced  to  lay  four  times  as  many.  Lavish  feeding  is, 
however,  not  to  be  advised,  and  though  meat  will  in- 
crease the  laying,  it  sometimes  injures  the  birds,  which 
may  then  produce  imperfect  eggs.  This  simply  means 


328  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

that,  by  stimulation,  the  eggs  are  passed  through  the 
"egg  machine"  too  rapidly  to  attain  perfection.  I  use 
some  meat,  but  with  great  care. 

Goose  farming  is  practiced  far  more  in  European 
countries  than  here.  From  the  methods  of  one  of  these 
farms  abroad  I  learn  that  the  goslings  are  fed  for  a 
week,  three  times  a  day,  on  equal  parts  of  oatmeal  and 
barley  meal  moistened  with  milk.  For  the  ensuing  three 
weeks  they  receive  the  same  mixture  twice  a  day,  after 
which  they  are  pastured  on  fields  eaten  close  by  cattle; 
earlier  in  the  season  so  that  the  new  grass  will  be  short 
and  tender.  With  this,  they  are  fed  only  oats  at  night. 

The  White  Chinese  and  the  Embdens  are  the  beauty 
breeds  among  geese.  To  some,  possibly  the  odd 
Sebastopols  would  appeal  as  beautiful.  The  popular 
sorts,  however,  are  the  large  ones,  the  Embden  and 
Toulouse  breeds,  to  which  the  White  Chinese  may  soon 
become  a  close  third,  as  interest  in  it  seems  to  be  grow- 
ing apace.  Its  peculiar  swanlike  neck  and  the  odd 
knob  on  its  head  give  it  distinctiveness,  if  not  distinction, 
and  white  birds  are  always  prime  favorites,  especially  as 
decorations.  White  feathers  will  sell  for  a  higher  price 
than  those  which  have  color. 

A  pair  of  geese  is  the  unit  of  breeding.  Once  one 
has  learned  how  to  handle  a  pair  he  has  all  the  skill 
needed  for  goose  breeding.  Speaking  in  general,  he 
may  then  branch  out  into  the  Fancy,  or  into  goose 
farming  ;  or  he  may  just  "  raise  geese  "  — a  few  for  his 
own  pleasure  or  for  the  decoration  of  the  home  place  — 
or  even  for  the  fluffy  feathers  on  which  his  wife  dotes. 

It  is  comparatively  easy  to  work  up  a  trade  in  goose 
eggs>  as  there  are  few  in  the  business.  A  start  with 


DUCKS  AND   GEESE  329 

good  stock  is  the  initial  and  the  critical  step.  Exhibition 
at  a  good  show  is  the  quickest  way  to  make  a  reputation. 
But  the  chief  difficulty  for  a  breeder  with  a  conscience, 
is  to  furnish  hatchable  eggs.  If  conditions  of  life  on  his 
place  are  wholly  favorable  for  the  geese,  the  chief  point 
is  not  to  try  to  ship  eggs  from  stock  less  than  two  years 
old.  One  who  has  worked  up  a  satisfactory  and  grow- 
ing trade  often  cannot  be  induced  to  sell  eggs  at  all,  for 
he  knows  that  even  at  fifty  cents  (a  common  price)  to  $1 
each,  the  eggs  are  worth  more  to  turn  into  geese.  The 
market  price  of  a  well-grown  fifteen-pound  goose  in  the 
East  will  be  near  $2.  I  sold  some  for  nearly  $3  each  in 
1911.  In  a  farm  paper  under  date  of  January  21,  1911, 
the  price  for  live  geese  was  fourteen  cents,  and  for 
dressed,  up  to  fifteen  cents.  This  would  figure  out  $2. 10 
and  $2.25  for  the  best,  alive  and  dressed,  respectively. 

This  gives  reasonable  ground  for  the  poorest  fancy 
geese  being  priced  at  about  $5  each,  while  from  that 
prices  may  grade  up,  possibly,  to  $50  a  pair  for  winners  in 
large  shows.  This  seems  to  me  rather  low,  but  I  suppose 
the  great  reason  is  that  goose  fanciers  are  comparatively 
few  in  number  and  thus  do  not  force  prices  higher.  When 
several  hundreds  of  dollars  sometimes  change  hands  with 
a  single  hen  or  cock,  it  seems  scarcely  fair  to  the  geese 
that  the  prices  should  be  so  far  below  this  extreme. 

Just  previous  to  this  writing,  I  was  studying  the 
hatching  eggs  price  list  of  a  poultry  supply  house  in 
New  York  City,  for  191 1.  The  lowest  price  for  "  Stan- 
dard-bred Utility  "  grade  was  $2  per  thirteen  (White 
Leghorns)  or  $7  per  hundred.  In  six  breeds  it  was  as 
high  as  $5,  and  in  one  $6  was  the  price  asked  for  thir- 
teen eggs  of  this  Utility  grade.  The  lowest  in  "  Exhi- 


330  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

bition  Quality  "  was  $5,  and  the  eggs  of  six  breeds  were 
held  at  $10  to  $12  per  thirteen.  This  was  for  the  eggs 
of  the  domestic  hen. 

Pekin  duck  eggs,  "  Standard-bred  Utility  "  grade,  were 
offered  at  $2. 50  per  twelve,  and  the  Embden  and  Toulouse 
eggs  of  the  same  grade  at  sixty  cents  each  or  $5  per  ten. 
No  larger  number  than  ten  was  offered,  and  no  eggs  of 
the  "  Exhibition  Quality."  However,  seventy-five  per 
cent  fertility  was  guaranteed  in  hens'  eggs,  from  March 
15  to  June  15;  claims  to  be  made  within  ten  days  from 
date  of  shipment.  No  guarantee  of  fertility,  either  "  ex- 
pressed or  implied,"  was  made  in  connection  with  water- 
fowl eggs,  and  no  claims  were  to  be  allowed  for  breakage. 

LITTLE  LINES  OF  GOOSE  LORE 

1.  Geese    are    the    "human   beings"    of   the   fowl 
family. 

2.  Geese  become  attached  to  people  and  places. 

3.  Geese  require  the  simplest  of  housing. 

4.  Goose  houses  may  be  portable. 

5.  Geese  are  easy  to  raise. 

6.  They  are  strictly  herbivorous. 

7.  They  must  have  access  to  water  and  good  pas- 
turage. 

8.  Females  breed  best  between   two  and   fourteen 
years ;  males  between  the  ages  of  two  and  ten. 

9.  The  eggs  may  require  thirty  days'  incubation. 

10.  Geese  weigh  up  to  twenty  pounds  Standard,  but 
may  reach  forty  or  more. 

11.  A  Standard-bred  flock  has  been  known  to  pay  at 
the  rate  of  $90  each,  all  eggs  being  incubated. 


XXVI 
THE   NATIONAL   BIRD 

The  Handicap  in  Turkey  Raising  — Resistant  Power  — 
Destroying  the  Sick  —  Lessons  from  Experience  — 
Bronze  Turkeys  —  Habits  —  Feed  —  An  Excellent 
Ration  —  Bourbon  Reds 

No ;  I  don't  mean  that  proud  bird  of  freedom,  the 
eagle.  But  the  turkey,  although  not  the  emblem  of 
freedom,  is  almost  as  insistent  on  it  as  the  eagle.  One 
hates  to  write  turkey  literature,  in  these  days  when 
blackhead  is  reported  here  and  there  all  over  the  coun- 
try. "Blackhead  "  is  a  germ  disease,  largely  fatal,  and 
spreading  from  bird  to  bird  and  from  flock  to  flock. 
This  troublesome  disease  begins  in  the  blind  entrails 
or  pouches,  like  long  pockets,  in  the  lower  intestines. 
There  is  inflammation,  enlargement,  and  thickening 
of  the  contents  of  these.  These  pouches,  when  spoken 
of  together,  are  called  "  caeca." 

In  connection  with  the  change  in  the  caeca  are  also 
changes  in  the  liver.  Other  diseases  show  spots  on 
the  liver,  but  blackhead  shows  circular  or  annular 
spots,  often  over  the  whole  area  of  the  liver.  The 
color  may  be  yellowish.  Yellow  color  in  a  liver  always 
means  something  wrong.  The  natural  color  —  what  we 
sometimes  call  "liver-colored"  when  it  appears  in  the 
color  of  dogs — verges  toward  a  dull,  dark,  purplish 
red.  Changes  in  the  liver  are  the  quickest  and  most 
certain  evidence  of  blackhead.  If  the  caeca  are  also  in- 
volved, the  diagnosis  is  pretty  certain  to  be  accurate. 


332  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

Whenever  a  new  disease,  a  new  fungus,  or  a  new 
ravaging  insect  appears,  the  first  step  toward  conquer- 
ing it  is  for  the  scientists  at  the  Experiment  Stations 
to  study  its  "life  history."  When  they  know  how  it 
looks,  how  it  develops,  and  what  it  does,  they  are  not 
Yankees  if  they  do  not  find  some  way  to  circumvent 
it.  I  remember  what  a  matter  of  life  and  death  the 
first  appearance  of  the  potato  beetle  was  to  our  farmers. 
People  feared  that  we  could  never  again  raise  potatoes 
in  this  country.  Many  farmers  came  near  starvation, 
on  the  newly  broken  lands  of  the  frontier.  It  was  a 
black,  black  outlook.  But  the  Yankee  came  out  atop, 
as  usual.  It  is  not  for  nothing  that  "  when  he  under- 
takes it,  he'll  make  the  thing,  and  the  machine  that 
makes  it ! "  At  the  present  time,  the  farmer  calmly 
reckons  how  much  Paris  green  or  arsenate  of  lead  or 
patent  mixture  he  will  need  wherewith  to  spray  his 
potato  patch,  buys  it,  applies  it,  and  sleeps  the  sleep 
of  the  man  who  has  done  his  duty,  and  who  need  not 
fear  the  result. 

When  blackhead  appeared,  our  scientists  began  to 
probe  into  its  life  history.  They  have  found  out  much. 
They  have  named  the  germ  and  have  given  it  a  "  bad 
name  "  in  two  senses.  They  have  discovered  its  cousin- 
ship  to  the  small  Mephistopheles  that  causes  white 
diarrhoea,  at  least  one  form  of  him.  (They  say  there 
are  two,  or  more.) 

The  conviction  is  gaining  ground  that,  no  matter 
what  the  disease,  or  the  victim,  —  whether  it  be  man,  or 
bird,  or  beast  of  the  field,  —  the  resistance  which  is  pres- 
ent, or  which  may  be  developed  in  the  larger  organism 
attacked  by  the  swarming  myriads  of  disease  germs, 


THE   NATIONAL  BIRD  333 

is  the  chief  hope.  Prevention  by  disinfectants  is  good, 
when  there  is  nothing  better ;  but  resistance  through 
robust  condition  is  better.  Disinfection  means  killing 
the  germs ;  there  is  another  way  of  killing  the  germs ; 
that  is,  to  kill  the  animal  attacked  by  them.  It  is  a 
fair  question,  Which  is  cheaper,  to  disinfect  houses, 
runs,  feed,  water,  etc.,  and  try  to  save  all  the  sick, 
or  to  destroy  all  the  sick,  without  loss  of  time,  and 
depend  on  keeping  the  rest  well  ?  Many  poultrymen 
are  so  convinced  that  the  latter  method  is  cheaper  in 
the  long  run,  as  well  as  better,  that  they  recommend 
"  the  ax  "  for  every  sickness  in  the  poultry  yards.  If 
this  is  thought  to  be  going  too  far,  at  least  a  "  hospital," 
where  every  case  of  incipient  disease  may  be  segre- 
gated, is  only  the  sensible  protection  of  the  rest. 

Mrs.  Mollie  MacClaughry  Allen,  an  Institute  lecturer 
located  in  New  York  State,  and  therefore  within  one 
of  the  blackhead  "  zones,"  has  had  experience  with  the 
genuine  disease.  At  the  time  of  the  first  attacks,  some 
years  ago  (as  she  states),  the  Stations,  while  making 
exact  diagnosis  of  it,  had  no  remedies  or  suggestions 
to  offer.  At  the  present  time,  hyposulphite  of  soda 
is  recommended  as  a  preventive,  to  be  given  in  the 
food  as  soon  as  the  first  symptoms  appear.  Mrs.  Allen 
disinfected  the  runs  as  far  as  practicable,  and  destroyed 
every  bird  that  showed  the  disease.  She  says,  "  It  is 
never  safe  to  keep  a  bird  that  has  once  been  affected 
with  the  disease."  Also,  that  the  older  and  stronger 
birds  were  never  affected.  The  second  year,  she  had 
few  losses,  but  separated,  killed,  and  burned  every 
bird  that  showed  "  the  fatal  yellow  "  in  the  droppings. 
By  disinfection,  clean  feed,  "and  special  attention  to 


334  THE  BEGINNER  IN   POULTRY 

the  selection  of  the  breeding  stock  for  health  and 
vigor,"  she  conquered  the  disease  in  her  flock.  It  has 
never  reappeared. 

I  regard  it  as  practically  impossible  to  disinfect  the 
ground  on  which  turkeys  range,  as  they  roam  so  widely. 
But,  the  wider  and  cleaner  the  range,  the  less  liable 
is  the  disease  to  get  into  the  flocks.  The  rest  of  Mrs. 
Allen's  program  may  be  followed  by  any  one.  Her 
first  rule,  never  to  spare  a  bird  really  sick  with  the 
disease,  is  the  most  difficult  for  the  average  poultry 
raiser  to  follow.  But  she  regards  it  as  the  key  to 
success. 

There  are  seven  varieties  of  turkeys  recognized  in 
this  country,  viz.,  the  Bronze,  the  Narragansett,  the 
White,  the  Black,  the  Buff,  the  Slate,  and  the  Bourbon 
Red.  The  first,  with  possibly  the  last,  seem  to  be  the 
most  prominent  in  the  minds  of  raisers.  They  are  the 
largest,  the  Bronze  variety  being  listed  in  the  American 
Standard  of  Perfection  at  from  20  pounds  for  the  hen  to  36 
for  the  adult  cock;  the  Bourbon  Red  at  from  14  to  30 
pounds.  The  last,  which  is  the  newest,  is  said  to  be  bred 
up  from  a  once  wild  variety  of  Bourbon  County,  Ken- 
tucky. Most  of  the  others  have  little  hold  on  the  country, 
though  the  Narragansett  variety  was  once  quite  popu- 
lar. The  Bronze  turkey  is  raised  everywhere ;  and,  al- 
though a  small  or  medium  bird  is  most  often  needed  by 
the  modern  family,  the  call  to  breeders  of  turkeys  is 
for  large  breeding  birds.  Mr.  Felch  has  said  that  a 
twenty-pound  female  will  seldom  lay,  and  that  a  "  torn  " 
weighing. over  thirty  pounds  is  worthless  as  a  breeder. 
The  big  Bronze  turkey  is  the  result  of  a  cross ;  the 
parentage  being  a  wild  gobbler  and  a  Narragansett  fe- 


336  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

male.  Turkeys  weighing  40  pounds  and  upward  are 
used  to  attract  attention  and  interest  in  city  shops  at 
holiday  times.  Mr.  Felch  thinks  28  pounds  is  the  heaviest 
male  that  should  be  used,  and  that  the  progeny  of  such 
a  one  will  average  as  heavy  as  those  of  a  larger  torn. 
The  size  required  in  the  market  varies  with  the  season. 

If  the  first  stock  or  breeding  birds  on  a  place  are 
raised  with  hens,  the  flocks  will  always  be  less  wild ; 
but  it  is  not  advisable  to  make  a  business  of  raising  the 
turkeys  in  company  with  the  other  fowls.  Indeed,  the 
less  this  is  done,  the  better.  Some  of  the  best  breeders 
inclose  plots  of  several  acres,  especially  for  the  breeding 
turkeys.  A  firm  which  used  to  sweep  everything  at 
the  New  York  show,  raised  its  turkeys  on  a  small  is- 
land, where  they  could  be  as  near  to  a  state  of  nature 
as  possible;  though  the  young  were  always  fed  and 
watched  carefully. 

Turkeys  love  to  steal  their  nests,  and  do  not  tend  to 
desert  a  nest  which  suits  them.  It  is  best  to  place 
barrels  in  sheltered,  aloof  places  near  the  buildings. 
Turkeys  like  barrels  for  nests.  These  may  be  roofed 
with  a  sheet  of  roofing  paper,  for  better  shelter.  They 
need  to  be  blocked  up  so  that  they  shall  not  roll  or  rock, 
and  it  is  better  to  have  the  front  end  slightly  lower, 
though  the  nest  itself  should  be  built  level  in  the  bottom. 
Turkeys  often  lay  three  clutches,  if  the  earlier  eggs  are 
given  to  hens  to  incubate.  These  litters  vary  from  eight 
or  ten  to  more  than  twenty,  sometimes.  Late  turkeys 
are  not  very  desirable.  A  common  hen  may  cover  nine 
turkey  eggs ;  a  turkey  hen  fifteen,  which  will  average 
high  in  fertility,  even  though  one  mating  serves  for  the 
season.  The  poults  are  very  weak  and  tender  at  the 


THE   NATIONAL  BIRD  337 

first.  They  succumb  easily  to  fatigue  or  wetting.  For 
this  reason,  they  are  usually  cooped  not  too  far  from 
the  house,  arid  a  triangular  pen  of  boards  used  to  con- 
fine them.  Sometimes,  only  the  young  are  penned,  the 
mother  being  free.  She  will  not  leave  them.  Green 
feed  is  their  chief  need,  or  at  least  they  cannot  do  with- 
out it.  I  fail  to  see  the  value  of  the  hard-boiled  egg 
so  often  recommended.  One  good  grower  uses  bread 
squeezed  from  sweet  milk  during  the  first  two  weeks ; 
later,  curd  and  meal  displace  it,  and  cracked  corn  is 
fed  at  night.  This  is  an  excellent  ration  if  the  poults 
are  on  tender  grass  so  that  they  may  get  all  they  need 
of  this.  Grit  and  charcoal  are  supplied  by  careful  poul- 
trymen,  and  lice  must  be  rigidly  kept  off. 

The  latest  variety  to  find  popular  favor,  especially  in 
the  South  and  Southwest,  is  the  Bourbon  Red.  I  have 
not  bred  this  turkey  myself,  but  one  who.  has,  speaks  of 
it  thus:  "I  was  a  pessimist  on  the  turkey  question  un- 
til I  got  hold  of  half  a  dozen  Bourbon  Red  turks  some 
years  ago  ;  but  my  experience  with  them  has  been  so 
satisfactory  that  I  am  a  firm  convert  to  the  belief  that 
they  are  the  best  turkeys  for  profit  in  the  United  States." 
He  enlarges  on  this  by  saying  that  they  are  more  intelli- 
gent, more  domestic,  more  easily  raised  than  the  other 
varieties,  and  will  lay  ("can  be  depended  on  to  lay") 
three  litters  of  eggs  of  from  15  to  18  each,  in  a  sea- 
son. His  feed  is  whole-wheat  bread  wet  slightly  with 
whole  mi}k,  mixed  with  onion  tops  and  lettuce  finely 
chopped.  From  48  hours  to  one  week  this  is  used. 
Then  they  are  started  on  hulled  oats,  wheat,  and  finally 
cracked  corn.  After  six  weeks  they  get  their  own  feed 
by  foraging.  He  allows  plenty  of  milk  to  drink' while 


338  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

they  are  small,  but  does  not  favor  milk  curd,  "all  other 
authorities  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding." 

The  standard  coloring  of  the  Bourbon  Red  turkeys 
is  chiefly  deep,  mahogany  red,  with  white  ;  the  primaries 
and  secondaries  and  the  tail  being  white,  the  neck, 
shoulders,  back,  and  breast  the  deep  red  tone ;  also  the 
thighs.  The  shanks  and  toes  partake  of  the  general 
coloring,  being  described  as  "reddish  pink,"  in  the  Stand- 
ard of  Perfection.  The  highest  Standard  weight  is  30 
pounds,  but  the  breeder  referred  to  above  says  they  range 
upward  to  36  pounds,  in  fact.  It  is  not  extremely  ex- 
ceptional for  birds  of  any  breed  to  exceed  the  Standard 
weight  of  the  breed,  when  that  weight  is  comparatively 
easy  to  reach.  If,  however,  the  Standard  has  been  placed 
where  it  is  quite  difficult  for  the  average  specimens  to 
reach  it  when  in  good  condition,  the  case  is  quite  differ- 
ent. Ganders  of  some  breeds  have  sometimes  exceeded 
their  Standard  weight  by  at  least  one  half,  while  they 
tell  stories  at  the  shows  of  almost  double  the  Standard 
weight  being  reached  by  old  males,  well  covered  with 
fat.  The  largest  known  weight  is  never  considered  the 
perfect  weight,  in  most  breeds  of  fowls. 


XXVII 
GUINEA   FOWL   AND   QUAIL 

Guineas  and  Game  —  Varieties  —  Unrecognized  Varieties 
Win  Their  Way  —  Appearance  and  Habits  of  Guineas 
—  Raising  Guineas  With  Hens  —  Demand  and  Prices 
-Guineas  as  Protectors  —  Quail  as  Poultry  —  Im- 
ported   Game  —  Quail    at    Connecticut    Agricultural 
College,  Storrs  —  Failures  and  Successes — Hatching 
Quail  in  Machines  —  Quail  Our  One  Hope  for  North- 
ern Game  Birds 

IN  my  book  "How  to  Keep  Hens  for  Profit,"  I  said 
(page  9),  "  admitting  that  their  quality  suits  the  mar- 
ket, the  Guinea  fowl  and  the  Indian  Runner  duck  are 
more  desirable  producers  of  '  game '  meat  than  are  the 
wild  fowl."  The  reason  given  was  that  such  fowls  as 
can  be  domesticated,  being  then  more  amenable  to  man's 
manipulation,  roll  up  the  dollars  of  income  faster  than 
can  be  done  with  the  chances  of  the  hunt.  This  is  true, 
despite  the  fact  that  the  wild  game  costs  nothing  to 
raise. 

The  shy  Guinea  fowl  has  been  and  is  still  regarded 
as  more  than  half  wild.  Yet  it  has  been  raised  success- 
fully by  "barnyard"  methods;  that  is,  in  actual  con- 
finement to  a  similar  extent  to  that  in  which  common 
hens  are  raised. 

The  "Guineas,"  as  they  are  usually  called,  are  ad- 
mitted really  to  be  native  to  Guinea.  The  common 
"  Pearl  "  variety  is  said  to  be  identical  with  that  of  the 
Guinea  Coast  of  Africa.  It  is  a  valuable  example  of  a 

339 


340 


THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


fowl  long  bred,  and  fairly  profitable  with  farmers  and 
fanciers,  not  having  been  formally  "  recognized "  by 
that  poultry  authority  known  as  the  "  American  Poultry 


White  Guinea  Fowl 

Association."  The  author  of  "  The  Perfected  Poultry 
of  America  "  says,  "  They  have  never  received,  so  far 
as  we  know,  sufficient  recognition  to  have  a  definite 
standard  prepared  for  them." 

The    lack  of   this  "  recognition  "  does   not   seem    to 
cause  any  loss  of  sleep  to  Guinea  breeders.     The  impor- 


GUINEA  FOWL  AND  QUAIL  341 

tant  shows  offer  premiums  for  them,  and  the  entries  are 
seldom  lacking  at  shows  which  I  have  attended.  We 
find  the  Pearl  Guinea,  the  White  Guinea,  and  even  the 
"  any  other  color  Guinea  fowl "  listed  in  the  classes  for 
premiums  (even  by  shows  professing  to  be  held  under 
American  Poultry  Association  rules),  under  the  same 
conditions  as  obtain  for  the  "  regulars."  New  breeds 
often  have  to  run  a  gauntlet  of  injustice,  in  which  a  non- 
recognized  breed  entered  must  compete  in  a  class  of 
"any  other  variety  of  fowl."  Here,  it  is  pitted,  not 
against  its  own  kind,  but  against  all  other  non-recognized 
breeds  which  may  be  entered.  Manifestly  this  is  no 
real  competition,  but  its  value  consists  in  getting  the  birds 
into  public  view.  The  valuable  white-egg,  English  bred 
Runner  Duck,  and  the  lovely  White  Indian  Runner, 
have  no  other  recognized  place  at  the  date  of  this  writ- 
ing. Still,  despite  the  authority  of  the  American  Poul- 
try Association,  and  its  recognition  of  a  green-egg 
Runner,  many  important  shows  are  deliberately  making 
classes  for  these  other  unrecognized  varieties,  because 
of  a  knowledge  of  their  superior  value.  Some  Southern 
show  officials  claiming  entries  of  four  or  five  hundred 
Runners,  for  the  1911-1912  season,  are  following  this 
method.  If  these  classes  fill  as  expected,  it  will  be  a 
marvelous  triumph  for  the  Indian  Runner  ducks,  as 
only  such  popular  breeds  as  Rocks  or  Wyandottes  have 
been  able  to  count  on  such  numbers,  even  at  the  lead- 
ing shows  in  the  largest  halls. 

The  Guinea  resembles  the  turkey  more  than  it  does 
any  other  of  the  domesticated  fowls,  though  it  is  smaller 
and  more  stocky  in  build.  Males  are  distinguished  from 
females  chiefly  by  their  cry,  the  plumage  and  other 


342  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

surface  characteristics  being  nearly  alike.  The  Pearl 
Guinea  plumage  is  of  a  shifting  lavender-gray  spotted 
with  pearls  of  white.  The  males  are  slightly  larger 
than  the  females;  the  voice  is  more  strident,  and  where 
young  are  being  led,  the  male's  careful  auxiliary  pro- 
tection of  the  female  and  her  little  ones  distinguish 
him.  No  ordinary  effort  which  any  person  aiming  to 
control  them  can  make  will  be  successful,  if  the  young 
seem  to  be  in  peril.  One  may  make  unnumbered  efforts 
to  head  off  the  male  from  his  family,  but  always  he  ap- 
pears between  his  charges  and  the  threatening  peril,  to 
insure  protection.  Miller  Purvis,  in  "  Poultry  Breeding," 
states  that  the  Guinea  seldom  weighs  more  than  three 
and  one  half  pounds.  In  appearance  they  are  more 
than  twice  this  size.  The  supposed  cry  of  "  Buck- 
wheat" so  common  to  the  Guinea  is  credited  to  the 
females  only. 

Though  seemingly  half  wild  when  hatched  by  the 
Guinea  female  according  to  her  own  devices,  the  Guinea 
chicks  are  very  dependent  on  the  companionship  of 
other  fowls.  With  the  Guinea  mother  they  range 
widely  and  roost  at  any  available  height  in  tree  top  or 
on  barn  roof,  but  their  love  of  companionship  makes 
mothering  by  the  common  hen  a  powerful  {raining  in 
domesticated  habits,  as,  even  when  weaned  they  may 
sit  by  her  if  she  sits  on  a  later  clutch  of  eggs,  and  range 
with  her  and  her  baby  brood  when  the  latter  are  hatched. 
This  may  not  be  so  good  for  the  health  and  vigor  of  the 
Guineas,  but  it  does  make  them  far  easier  to  handle.  It 
is  better  to  let  the  hen  range  with  them  as  soon  as  they 
are  strong,  rather  than  to  coop  them  closely.  Night 
care  is  a  necessity  in  many  localities,  but  freedom  is  al- 


GUINEA  FOWL  AND   QUAIL  343 

most  as  precious  to  the  Guineas  as  to  turkeys.  They 
eat  the  same  feeds  as  do  other  fowls,  -the  range  con- 
ditions suiting  their  habits  and  tendencies  best.  The 
Guinea  hens  are  good  layers,  and  often  incubate  twenty 
of  their  own  eggs.  Fertility  is  usually  good,  under  fairly 
natural  conditions,  and  with  one  or  two  mates  for  the 
male,  but  nests  in  brush  piles  far  from  the  buildings  are 
of  course  much  at  the  mercy  of  marauders  of  every 
kind. 

I  do  not  consider  the  Guinea  hen  to  be  so  careless  a 
mother  as  she  is  sometimes  rated  to  be  ;  but  fowls  under 
wild  or  half-wild  conditions  are  subject  to  all  weathers 
and  all  predatory  enemies  which  may  haunt  their  ranges, 
and  this  means  lamentable  losses.  Guineas  may  lay 
until  midsummer  without  sitting,  if  the  eggs  are  re- 
moved from  the  nests,  but  they  are  always  jealous  of 
human  approach  to  their  nests  or  young.  The  later 
sitting  brings  the  chicks  out  at  the  most  favorable 
season,  when  they  are  much  more  likely  to  come  to 
maturity. 

There  is  a  good  demand  for  live  Guineas  and  Guinea 
eggs  in  the  spring,  though  the  price  is  not  high.  In 
the  poultry  prints  it  seldom  goes  above  one  to  two  dollars 
per  sitting.  From  my  knowledge  of  farm  conditions,  I 
gather  that  there  is  much  more  cheap  trade  among 
farmers  than  among  fanciers.  Fanciers  nearly  always 
scorn  such  cheap  trade,  and  often  a  good  medium  will 
be  without  any  advertisers  of  Guineas.  Farmers  ex- 
change eggs,  or  charge,  it  may  be,  fifty  cents  for  single 
sittings.  I  know  of  a  locality  where  several  farmers 
supply  Guinea  eggs  and  stock  to  a  fancier,  who  may  get 
twice  the  farm  prices.  Even  this  is  not  large  profit 


344  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

when  advertising,  risk,  packages,  and  packing,  corre- 
spondence, etc.,  are  considered. 

There  is  a  good  New  York  market  for  young  Guinea 
broilers  in  the  autumn  and  early  winter  months.  This 
market  is  a  growing  one,  and  it  is  to  be  expected  that 
the  trade  in  Guineas  and  their  eggs  will  reach  a  better 
condition  in  the  near  future. 

Some  large  hotels  place  Guinea  flesh  regularly  on 
their  bills  of  fare  under  its  own  name,  but  probably 
more  of  it  is  consumed  as  "  game."  Its  gamy  flavor 
renders  it  such  a  favorite  on  some  farms  that  there  are 
no  surplus  Guineas  for  sale  from  them.  Guineas  arc 
light  eaters,  and  at  all  times  prefer  to  range  for  their 
own  chosen  tidbits,  in  shape  of  weed  seeds,  insects,  etc. 
They  are  not  destructive,  so  far  as  I  know,  and  are 
sometimes  valuable  protectors,  as  no  intruder  can  visit 
any  poultry  yard  without  their  raising  a  racket. 

To  place  quail  among  poultry  is  to  make  some  people 
open  their  eyes  questioningly,  but  Herbert  K.  Job,  the 
enthusiastic  state  ornithologist  of  Connecticut,  states 
his  conviction  that  this  will  be  the  status  of  the  quail  at 
no  very  distant  date. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  a  Government  Bulletin  (No. 
182)  put  out  in  1903,  says:  "The  industry  of  taming 
and  raising  quails  for  aviaries  and  for  the  table  is  still 
very  small,  but  if  reports  can  be  relied  upon  it  is  per- 
haps well  enough  established  to  suggest  classifying  the 
birds  with  poultry." 

It  is  a  dozen  years,  I  think,  since  I  had  some  talk 
with  a  very  successful  squab  raiser  of  southern  New 
Jersey  about  quail.  He  was  then  experimenting  with 
them,  and  was  quite  of  the  belief  that  success  would 


GUINEA  FOWL  AND  QUAIL 


345 


crown  his  efforts  to  raise  them.     But  I  have  never  since 
heard  from  him. 

Since  that  time  the  quail  of  the  country  have  been  in 
sad  case.  Even  in  the  case  of  larger  animals,  feeding 
has  become  necessary,  portions  of  the  Yellowstone 
Park  having  been  sown  to  acres  of  alfalfa  so  that  about 


Quail  Chicks  at  Connecticut  Agricultural  College,  Feeding  from  Hand  and 
Getting  Tame  Enough  for  "  Poultry."  (Photo  by  Herbert  K.  Job,  State 
Ornithologist) 

100  tons  of  hay  was  available.  About  5000  game  birds, 
besides  pheasants,  were  imported  in  1905,  2392  being 
quail  from  Mexico. 

These  Mexican  birds  were  imported  as  a  direct  result 
of  the  scarcity  of  native  birds,  to  meet  the  great  demand 
for  quail  of  any  species  for  propagation ;  many  quail 
having  died  in  two  severe  winters  just  previous.  The 


346  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

situation  has  since  grown  so  much  worse  that  the  United 
States  Government  Report  for  1910  states  :  "  Quail  have 
been  reduced  almost  to  the  vanishing  point  in  the  North- 
ern states,  but  are  still  fairly  plentiful  in  the  middle  belt, 
and  moderately  abundant  in  the  South."  English  par- 
tridges (imported  for  the  market)  have  been  on  sale  in 
Chicago  at  $12  a  dozen,  and  ruffed  grouse  at  $22  a 
dozen.  From  the  time  when  buffalo  were  killed  for 
their  tongues  alone,  and  the  ruffed  grouse  ranked  in 
Massachusetts  as  a  pest,  we  have  come  to  such  a  pass 
that  our  markets  demand  more  and  more  English  game 
because  we  have  not  enough  of  our  own.  Early  reck- 
lessness in  destruction,  commercial  greed,  and  the  trans- 
formation of  wild  into  cultivated  land,  are  named  as  the 
three  chief  reasons  for  present  scarcity.  The  states 
have  become  so  aroused  that  in  1910  only  Colorado, 
Tennessee,  and  Georgia  were  without  restrictive  laws  of 
some  degree.  The  next  step  is  an  effort  at  domestication. 

At  Storrs  Agricultural  College,  Connecticut,  the  state 
ornithologist  and  Professor  F.  H.  Stoneburn,  assisted^ 
by  Joseph  Martin,  a  young  poultry  student  graduate, 
have  joined  hands  in  an  effort  to  raise  quail  in  domesti- 
cation. The  college  has  a  tract  of  open,  half-wild  hill 
land,  fairly  well  suited  to  the  work,  and  on  this  the 
breeders  are  kept  and  the  young  brooded.  But  the 
hatching  progresses  in  the  incubators,  and  a  machine 
brooder  is  doing  the  material  work.  The  three  enthusi- 
astic men  mentioned  supply  the  interest  and  the  love 
which,  if  anything,  joined  to  good  sense,  will  make  the 
work  a  success. 

The  first  season  began  with  the  breeding  birds  wired 
in  a  promiscuous  bunch  up  on  the  hill.  For  weeks  nothing 


348  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

but  disappointment  came  of  it.  The  birds  did  not  mate 
or  nest  at  all  freely,  and  the  prospects  of  many  additions 
to  the  some  thirty  breeding  quail  earlier  procured  from 
various  points  seemed  distant  or  wanting.  After  possibly 
two  months,  the  plan  of  segregating  some  of  the  breeders 
in  pairs  was  tried.  .  Nesting  began  almost  at  once,  lay- 
ing followed  in  eight  days,  and  hopes  were  again  high. 
The  rest  were  paired  in  the  latter  part  of  June,  and  in 
August  all  were  reported  by  Mr.  Job  as  having  laid 
some  four  hundred  eggs. 

The  first  eggs  to  be  placed  under  incubation  had  evi- 
dently been  looked  upon  by  Connecticut's  patron  witch  — 
one  with  a  very  evil  eye.  Their  age  was  "various,"  known 
only  to  be  too  great  for  good  hatching.  Knowledge  in 
handling  them  in  the  machine  was  at  a  low  stage,  and 
the  hatch,  while  pretty  fair,  was  not  one  to  shout  aloud 
over.  With  all  care,  a  perfectly  new  brooder  was 
appropriated  to  the  quail.  Almost  before  hope  could 
plume  herself,  the  "  reliable  "  new  brooder  played  false. 
It  carried  a  paraffin  tank  as  part  of  its  panoply,  an 
arrangement  supposed  to  insure  mild,  evenly  distributed 
heat.  The  unfortunate  working  of  it  proved  it  to  be, 
rather,  evenly  distributed  paraffin,  this  distribution  being 
largely  on  the  tiny  quail !  The  manufacturer  had  over- 
filled the  tank.  The  left-overs  were  seven. 

I  saw  the  seven,  in  their  roomy  brooder,  contentedly 
eating  posset  and  maggots,  and  custard,  and  all  the 
substitutes  for  ice  cream  which  appeal  to  pampered 
quail  which  yet  must  not  be  pampered  to  death.  They 
seemed  rather  likely  to  prove  a  credit  to  their  assiduous 
attendants. 

The  next  lot  held  the  most  hopes.     When  I  saw  them 


GUINEA  FOWL  AND   QUAIL  349 

there  were  towards  fifty  eggs  in  the  machine  —  fully  the 
most  interesting  eggs  I  ever  saw  in  an  incubator.  The 
sharply  ovoid  things  were  so  small  that  the  machine 
looked  like  a  big  nest  with  a  handful  of  eggs  in  the 
center.  When  I  saw  them  there  were  twenty-two  wee 
tumblers  down  in  the  nursery,  and  the  eggs  above  were 
sphinxlike,  though  a  few  were  pipped.  As  I  left  next 
day,  my  last  act  was  to  look  up  the  young  assistant  and 
ask  about  the  quail.  He  reported  several  more  as  having 
hatched  during  the  night. 

Other  states  have  tried  experiments  with  quail  — 
notably  Massachusetts  —  with  more  or  less  success.  The 
operators  believe  they  will  succeed  in  time,  if  not  at 
once.  In  the  meantime,  hope  is,  to  the  full,  as  interest- 
ing as  certainty.  And  all  such  efforts  will  be  watched 
eagerly.  With  quail  as  a  species  of  poultry,  and  giving 
fair  returns  for  attention  in  breeding,  hatching,  and 
brooding,  the  country  would  bid  fair  to  be  rich  in  quail. 
For  the  quail  are  very  prolific,  a  single  hen  often  laying 
fifty  or  sixty  eggs  in  a  season.  In  a  single  case  one 
has  been  known  to  lay  one  hundred  and  two  eggs. 

It  is  thirty  years  or  more  since  the  first  attempts  were 
made  to  establish  European  quail  in  this  country.  In  a 
few  years  several  thousand  had  been  liberated  in  the 
middle  West,  the  North,  and  East  (some  also  in  Canada). 
They  mated,  nested,  raised  their  young;  then  all  dis- 
appeared with  the  autumn  migrations !  The  common 
failure  of  the  experiment  with  quail  and  the  growing 
scarcity,  together  with  "  non-export  restrictions  "  being 
passed  by  the  Southern  states  for  the  bobwhite  ("  our 
Southern  partridge  ")  have  combined  to  lead  toward  the 
conviction  that  only  the  success  of  the  efforts  to  make 


350 


THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


quail  into  poultry  will  save  the  small  game  birds  — to  the 
more  northern  portions  of  the  United  States,  at  least. 

I  might  add  just  a  word  about  the  grouse  and  pheas- 
ant. The  ruffed  grouse  is  "our  Northern  partridge." 
It,  too,  is  disappearing  ;  attempts  at  introducing  foreign 
grouse  have  not  been  happily  successful,  and  efforts  to 
raise  them  in  confinement  may  fairly  be  called  failures. 


Young  Quail,  Two  Months   Old,  at  the    Connecticut    Agricultural    College. 
(Courtesy  of  Outing  Publishing  Company.)     Photo  by  Herbert  K.  Job 

In  a  certain  locality  in  the  western  part  of  New  York 
State  the  farmers  are  almost  in  rebellion  over  the  law 
against  killing  the  pheasants  which  are  making  serious 
inroads  on  their  crops.  "  Somebody  "  liberated  one,  or 
some,  there  but  a  few  years  ago,  and  this  is  the  result, 
they  say.  On  this  matter  of  introduction  of  pheasants 
the  Government  Report,  after  stating  that  Ringneck  and 
English  Ringneck  have  been  introduced  since  1880  into 


GUINEA  FOWL  AND   QUAIL  351 

nearly  every  one  of  our  states  and  most  of  the  Canadian 
Provinces,  continues :  "  For  more  than  twenty  years 
determined  and  painstaking  efforts  have  been  made  to 
establish  these  pheasants  in  America ;  and  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  regions,  such  as  the  Willamette  Valley 
in  Oregon,  several  circumscribed  localities  in  Washington 
and  British  Columbia,  tJie  Genesee  Valley  in  New  York, 
and  possibly  in  one  or  two  other  places,  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  the  pheasants  remaining  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  not  in  private  preserves,  have  cost  not  less  than 
fifty  dollars  apiece.  Furthermore,  the  few  that  are  left 
will  probably  soon  disappear  if  the  stock  is  not  replen- 
ished by  fresh  liberations."  The  European  partridge, 
Hungarian  partridge,  German  partridge,  Bohemian  par- 
tridge, German  quail,  or  whatever  other  name  the  species 
may  immigrate  under,  seems  to  be  the  one  remaining 
hope,  aside  from  the  domesticating  of  our  native  quail. 
In  size  this  partridge  is  between  our  bobwhite  and  our 
ruffed  grouse.  It  is  about  twelve  to  thirteen  ounces  in 
weight,  and  is  admitted  to  be  larger  and  more  rugged 
than  the  English  partridge. 

It  is,  of  course,  unwise  for  any  Beginner  to  attempt  to 
raise  such  difficult  subjects  while  still  a  Beginner.  But 
if  they  interest  him  deeply,  he  may  acquire  all  the 
knowledge  needed  to  handle  them,  as  a  side  interest, 
while  still  "  practicing  his  scales."  in  raising  the  com- 
mon domestic  fowls. 

There  is  fascination  untold  in  discovering  how  industry 
after  industry  dovetails  with  others,  till  a  complete  chain 
is  formed,  linking  together  the  whole  world :  man,  the 
lower  mammals,  the  birds,  vegetable  life,  minerals,  etc. 
Poultry  raising  dovetails  into  this  group  on  every  side. 


352  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

Here  are  the  boy,  the  corn,  the  chicken ;  here,  fac- 
similes of  the  forest  songsters,  the  sportsman's  delight,  the 
cawing  pests  of  the  farmyard  and  field  ;  here,  the  cotton- 
tail, the  wind-shielded  alfalfa,  the  velvet  bean,  with  its 
close-bunched  nodule  of  nitrogen-gathering  roots ;  here 
the  Illinois  corn  exhibit  (high  credit  mark  to  our  boys) 
and  the  Minnesota  flax  field,  which  may  furnish,  when 
its  prime  mission  is  fulfilled,  a  lesser  help  in  the  residues 
from  the  crushed  seed,  known  to  us  as  oil  meal.  The 
Great  Horned  Owl  and  the  Carson  Meadow  Mouse  may  be 
as  wide  apart  as  the  opposite  borders  of  our  land.  Even 
from  beyond  the  seas  come  some  of  these  enemies,  and  all 
affect  the  welfare  of  the  poultryman,  through  his  fowls. 

Some  —  above — -are  his  enemies  ;  some,  such  intimate 
friends  that  without  them  he  could  hardly  be  a  poultry- 
man. They  sustain  life  in  his  flocks ;  they  keep  the 
balance  between  friend  and  foe  in  Nature,  a  destruction 
of  which  always  means  disaster  to  man. 

The  flax,  the  corn,  the  alfalfa,  the  cabbage,  the  field  peas, 
must  furnish  food  ;  the  velvet  bean  and  the  Canada  field 
pea  turned  under,  enrich  the  ground  for  the  bumper  crops 
that  make  it  worth  the  poultryman's  while  to  raise  his  own 
truck  and  grain,  at  least  in  part.  The  rabbit,  the  meadow 
mouse,  alas  !  have  much  to  their  discredit ;  but  even  the 
hawk  and  the  owl,  the  crow  and  the  jay,  though  destructive 
in  part,  can  be  proved  even  more  beneficial,  so  that  the  gov- 
ernment now  urges  the  protection  of  all  but  a  few  like  the 
Sharp-shinned  Hawk,  the  Cooper  Hawk,  and  the  Great 
Horned  Owl;  while  the  family  cat  is  considered  a  greater 
sinner  than  "  all  the  native  natural  enemies  combined." 

While  the  genuine  Beginner  is  not  likely  enough  to 
screw  his  courage  so  high  as  to  need  warning  to  let 


GUINEA  FOWL  AND  QUAIL 


353 


This  Hawk  Feeds  Chiefly  on  Wild  Birds  and  Poultry.     Efficiency  Demands 
that  it  Be  Kept  in  Check 


2A 


354  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

ostriches  alone,  at  least  till  he  can  creep,  he  will  be 
interested  in  the  fact  that  ostrich  farming  is  a  part  of 
America's  diversified  bird  culture.  While  perhaps  not 
within  the  limits  of  true  poultry  because  not  fully  domes- 
ticated, the  ostriches  certainly  rank  high  as  economic 
birds,  and  America  has  been  busy  ostrich  farming  —  in 
spots  —  for  about  thirty  years.  Twenty-nine  ostrich 
farms  are  now  reported  in  this  country,  carrying  above 
five  thousand  ostriches.  The  above  ten  million  fowls 
reported  in  the  Pacific  Division  include  one  thousand 
eighty-two  ostriches  on  ten  California  farms.  One  farm 
in  Arkansas  reports  one  hundred  forty-seven  ostriches. 
American  alfalfa  helps  make  the  limits  of  ostrich 
farming  here ;  they  can  be  grown  in  any  of  our  more 
Southern  states,  where  green  feed  is  abundant  the  year 
around,  though  certain  localities  are  especially  favorable. 
A  full-grown  ostrich  is  half  as  heavy  as  a  cow,  and  the 
man  who  would  pluck  one  literally  has  his  hands  full. 
The  young  produce  of  21  pairs,  early  in  the  history  of 
ostrich  farming  in  America,  was  sold  for  $30,000,  all 
within  two  years.  The  eggs  are  five  inches  in  diameter 
and  seven  inches  long,  and  special  incubators  are  built  to 
hold  about  35  or  40  eggs.  Between  these  huge  sealed 
shells  of  nutriment  and  the  tiny  quail  eggs,  the  contrast 
is  so  great  that  the  mind  can  hardly  take  in  the  fact  that 
both  are  birds'  eggs,  and  that  both  birds  are  amenable  to 
handling  by  man  and  to  artificial  rearing.  The  cave  man 
began  domesticating  animals,  and  his  descendants  are  at 
it  yet.  The  group  of  five-months-old  ostriches  pictured 
might  be  taken  for  the  stagiest  of  skirt  dancers,  so  bare 
are  their  legs  and  so  fluffy  their  petticoats,  so  light  and 
dainty  their  balance  and  so  "low-necked"  their  attire. 


XXVIII 
DRAWING   AND    DISMEMBERING    POULTRY 

Governmenrt  Investigation  of  Shipping  Losses — Loss  Due 
to  Methods  of  Killing  and  Handling — Local  Market- 
ing —  Partial  Dissection  —  Dismembering  a  Fowl  for 
Table  Use  —  A  Quicker  Method  —  Learning  to  Carve 
—  Part  Dissection  of  Birds  that  Die  —  Results  of 
Overstimulation. 

IT  is  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  Beginner  to  know  where 
he  can  get  brief,  conservative,  reliable,  and  sharply  prac- 
tical informative  booklets  on  special  topics.  Such  are  the 
bulletins  of  the  United  States  Agricultural  Department. 
As  a  foundation  for  the  wider  knowledge  and  the  dis- 
cussion which  brings  out  ideas,  "  secrets,"  etc.,  from 
many  hundreds  of  people,  through  books  and  periodicals, 
there  is  nothing  else  so  safe  as  these  Government  Bulle- 
tins, or  primers. 

In  the  matter  of  preparing  poultry  for  market,  there 
is  an  especially  valuable  lot  of  government  literature. 
The  almost  incredible  losses  and  wastes,  occurring  in  con- 
nection with  moving  the  enormous  quantities  of  poultry 
meat  produced  from  the  growers  to  the  consumers, 
roused  the  authorities  to  keen  investigation  into  causes. 
Having  found,  through  first-hand  research  work,  the 
causes,  it  prepared  bulletins,  lectures,  and  lantern-slides 
as  mediums  to  pass  this  highly  valuable  information  on  to 
the  producers  and  shippers,  who  stood  in  such  crying  need 
of  it.  One  would  not  for  a  minute  intimate  that  all  the 
blame  falls  on  the  producers.  But  a  knowledge  of  the 

355 


356         THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

best  methods,  on  the  part  of  the  producer,  eliminates, 
from  the  very  start,  many  of  the  worst  evils. 

During  "  Farmers'  Week  "  at  Cornell  University,  early 
in  1910,  I  saw  the  slides  shown  and  heard  the  lecture 
given  by  the  government  representative,  sent  especially 
for  this  duty.  The  value  of  such  aid  is  almost  inesti- 
mable. The  government's  "  Just-How  Series,"  so  to 
speak,  is  invaluable  to  all  who  "  want  to  know."  The 
states  stand  between  the  government  and  their  own  pro- 
ducers, ready  to  hand  down  every  good  thing,  and  con- 
tinually experimenting  and  searching  on  their  own 
account  and  for  the  benefit  of  the  people.  At  Syracuse, 
a  few  months  after  the  lantern  lecture  at  Cornell,  I  saw 
Cornell's  Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  himself,  demon- 
strating these  points  for  the  benefit  of  many  hundreds 
of  interested  farmers  and  poultry  people,  at  the  crowded 
State  Fair.  All  through  the  state  (and  other  states  as 
well)  this  hard-won  knowledge  is  passed  on :  at  the  poultry 
shows  ;  at  the  Fairs ;  at  institutes ;  and  in  the  Short 
Courses,  to  eager  young  students.  The  man  who  does 
not  hunt  out  the  knowledge  he  needs  in  these  times,  is 
too  slow  and  blind  for  the  times.  For  the  knowledge  is 
out,  fairly  hunting  him,  all  the  time  ! 

To  be  brief,  the  causes  of  loss  to  find  out  which  re- 
search work  was  set  on  foot,  in  connection  with  poultry 
marketing,  were  discovered  to  lie  almost  wholly  in  the 
methods  of  killing  and  the  careless  handling  poultry 
received  at  that  time,  and  while  being  prepared  for  mar- 
ket. Demonstrations  were  made,  showing  how  correct 
methods  of  killing,  handling,  and  shipping  eliminate  the 
waste  losses.  I  shall  not  repeat  the  methods,  as  any  one 
can  get  them  from  the  Agricultural  Department  at 


DRAWING   AND   DISMEMBERING  POULTRY        357 

Washington.  (Many  of  the  Bulletins  are  free;  some 
have  a  small  price  attached.  A  list,  with  details,  can  be 
had  upon  application.)  I  will  say  only  that  the  great 
improvement  turns  almost  wholly  on  quick  and  thorough 
bleeding,  and  on  preserving  the  skin  from  breaking,  and 
the  flesh  from  bruising.  "  Just  how  "  to  make  every 
motion  is  taught. 

In  marketing  poultry  products  locally,  and  to  private 
custom,  it  is  necessary  to  follow  the  methods  of  the  mar- 
ket poulterer  and  the  large  handler  only  in  essentials. 
The  essentials  are  good  bleeding,  clean  work,  with  skin 
as  little  broken  as  possible,  and,  in  many  localities, 
"drawing"  the  carcass.  For  the  home  table,  there  is 
still  one  process  which  may  be  looked  upon  as  modified 
dissection.  Partial  dissection  is  often  the  one  reliable 
aid  toward  the  avoidance  of  "  repeats  "  in  the  matter  of 
mistakes  in  feeding,  or  in  the  case  of  diseases  of  various 
kinds.  Scalding  the  fowl  is  often  permissible,  and  quick 
severing  of  the  head  with  an  ax  is  the  easy  manner  of 
killing.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  fowls  are  most  commonly 
sold  with  the  heads  on,  it  is  customary  with  those  who 
sell  drawn  birds,  minus  the  heads,  to  figure  in  the  weight 
of  the  heads,  unless  the  price  asked  has  allowed  for  this 
loss  of  weight. 

In  all  towns,  the  majority  of  those  house  mistresses 
who  are  free  buyers  are  likely  not  to  know  how  to  pre- 
pare undrawn  fowl  for  the  table.  If  the  servant  be 
equally  ignorant,  the  situation  may  appear  even  tragic 
to  those  most  deeply  concerned.  It  will,  in  most  cases, 
probably  be  necessary  to  draw  the  fowls  for  private 
custom,  on  this  account.  The  operation  takes  little  time, 
after  one  has  attained  skill  through  frequent  practice. 


358 


THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


But  no  cook  book,  or  other  repository  of  housekeeping 
wisdom  within  my  knowledge,  gives  the  method  of 
procedure. 


Drawing  and  Dismembering  a  Fowl:  A.  The  First  Knife  Stroke  at  Rear; 
B.  Removing  Food  Tube  and  Wind-pipe  ;  C.  the  Fingers  strongly  Draw- 
ing Abdominal  Contents  Outward ;  D.  Leg  Joint  Cut  Asunder ;  E. 
Lengthwise  Cut  Down  Back 

The  first  operation,  always,  is  to  slit  the  outer  skin 
(only)  lengthwise,  over  the  food  pouch   known  as   the 


DRAWING  AND   DISMEMBERING   POULTRY        359 

crop.  By  careful  working,  with  thumb  and  fingers,  the 
two  skins  are  separated,  thus  loosening  the  crop  from 
the  outer  skin.  It  is  then  cut  free  across  the  food  tract 
at  its  lower  end.  Some  care  is  necessary,  in  order  that 
the  juices  shall  notescape,  in  a  troublesome  dribble.  (Some 
are  so  particular  that,  when  the  fowl  is  to  be  roasted, 
they  remove  the  crop  by  slipping  it  through  under  the 
main  skin  at  the  upper  part  of  the  neck,  without  making 
any  slit  in  the  outer  skin.  For  cooking,  the  fowl  is 
stuffed  by  reversing  this  process,  thus  filling  the  space 
left  vacant  by  the  missing  crop. 

The  crop  being  freed,  and  the  legs  split  off  from  the 
body,  the  bird  is  now  grasped,  in  one  method,  by  the 
skin  between  the  vent  and  the  tail,  using  the  thumb  and 
forefinger  of  the  left  hand.  The  carcass  is  best  held  on 
end,  the  breast  resting  on  the  table.  A  square  is  cut 
about  the  vent,  the  slits  being  made  across  the  raised 
bits  of  skin,  with  care  not  to  cut  too  deep.  If  the  bird 
is  in  good  condition,  the  skin  is  underlaid  with  a  layer 
of  fat,  which  prevents  cutting  the  intestine.  Careful 
cutting  through  this  fat  lays  the  abdominal  contents 
partially  open.  If  the  opening  is  not  large  enough  to 
work  through,  extended  slits,  toward  the  thigh,  will  give 
more  room.  The  three  long  fingers  of  the  right  hand, 
slightly  spread,  are  now  carefully  but  strongly  thrust  up 
between  the  abdominal  contents  and  the  breastbone. 
They  will  reach  beyond  the  intestinal  coil,  drop  their  tips 
behind  it  to  the  back  bone,  and  with  a  strong,  steady 
pull,  draw  out  all  the  abdominal  contents  but  the  heart, 
lungs,  and  kidneys.  The  knife  may  be  needed  to  free 
the  membranes  at  the  outer  end.  The  heart  and  lungs 
may  be  removed  separately,  the  last  being  bedded  some- 


360  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

what  between  the  ribs  at  the  backbone,  far  up.  This  is 
the  whole  operation  of  "  drawing."  It  is  easily  learned, 
the  chief  point  being  the  use  of  care  not  to  cut  the  en- 
trails. The  liver  is  now  cut  free  from  the  green  gall 
bag,  the  gizzard  split  at  the  thick  end  and  laid  open.  A 
few  trials  are  the  only  thing  to  teach  one  not  to  cut  too 
deep ;  that  is,  so  deep  as  to  lay  open  the  rough  sac  of 
tough,  inner  membrane  containing  the  waste.  This  should 
come  away  entire,  with  its  partly  digested  contents. 
Scraping  of  the  inner  surface  of  *the  gizzard  and  of  the 
outer  skin  of  the  fowl  make  the  meat  ready  for  careful 
washing.  Some  cooks  commit  the  error  of  soaking  the 
drawn  and  dismembered  fowl  for  several  hours.  Nothing 
could  more  surely  impair  its  flavor.  It  should  be  washed 
and  scraped  as  rapidly  as  possible,  drained,  covered,  and 
set  away  dry  till  ready  for  cooking. 

In  another  method  of  drawing,  after  the  crop  has 
been  removed,  a  sharp  knife  is  drawn  the  length  of  the 
back,  just  at  one  side  the  spinal  column,  the  cut  being 
made  through  the  bones  only,  which  are  thin  at  this 
point,  and,  in  young  fowls,  soft.  A  few  trials  will  show 
how  deep  to  cut.  The  carcass  can  then  be  laid  open 
the  full  length,  as  a  book  is  opened,  and  the  worker  can 
see  to  remove  all  the  contents  of  the  body  cavity.  When 
sufficient  skill  is  attained,  this  is  the  quickest  method 
known,  I  believe. 

For  the  Head  of  the  Table  who  would  learn  to  carve 
skillfully  and  with  ease,  there  is  no  other  aid  equal  to 
practice  in  disjointing  an  uncooked  fowl.  A  young  bird 
is  better  for  the  first  practice  work,  because  all  the  joints 
and  cartilages  are  soft,  and  cut,  as  the  saying  goes, 
"  like  cheese."  There  is  a  gristly  point  in  each  joint, 


A.  Egg  Duct,  Egg  Cluster  (extreme  right),  and  Gizzard.  Flanking  Gizzard, 
Lumps  of  Yellow  Fat  which  Surrounded  It.  B.  Slash,  Forward  of  Breast 
Bone ;  at  Left,  Thigh  Slashed  apart  from  Trunk  Portion.  C.  Exact  Posi- 
tion of  Knife  in  the  Difficult  Severing  of  Breast  Portion  from  Back 


362  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

which  cleverness  and  skill  can  strike  almost  unerringly. 
The  correct  position  for  the  knife,  as  well  as  the  point 
of  cutting,  must  be  known.  At  the  end  of  the  breastbone 
is  a  weak  point  for  cross-sectioning.  A  little  below  the 
middle  of  the  back  is  a  vital  point  where  division  is  easy, 
by  a  backward  pull  of  each  end,  or  even  of  the  lower 
end  if  a  fork  is  struck  in  it  strongly.  To  detach  the 
collar  bone  is  perhaps  the  most  difficult  part  of  the 
operation,  but  a  cut  at  just  the  right  angle  will  do  it. 
The  neck  joints  are  twisted  off,  or  cut  between  the 
vertebrae,  after  the  skin  and  flesh  have  had  a  circular, 
clean  cut.  A  sharp,  narrow,  rather  short,  pointed  kitchen 
knife  does  good  work. 

It  is  rather  necessary  f<5r  any  grower  who  would  be 
really  independent,  to  learn  how  to  do  the  cutting  at  the 
vent  that  will  give  access  to  the  abdominal  cavity  con- 
tents. Often,  one  look  at  the  interior  of  the  cavity  will 
solve  problems  which  have  vexed  the  soul  of  the  poultry- 
man  for  weeks  or  months. 

Inflammations,  ovarian  difficulties,  tumors,  worms, 
caecal  affections,  fistulas ;  in  fact,  nearly  all  but  head 
and  throat  troubles,  will  be  diagnosed  by  a  good  look  at 
the  abdominal  contents.  The  intestines  and  the  egg 
organs  are  packed  so  closely  together  that  difficulty  with 
one  may  soon  mean  difficulty  with  the  other.  And, 
when  man  is  continually  stimulating  the  egg  organs  to 
added  activity,  .it  must  be  expected  that  breakdowns 
from  overstrain  and  overwork  will  occur.  The  egg 
duct  may  be  torn  ;  eggs  may  escape  into  the  abdomen ; 
cysts  will  form  around  foreign  bodies,  and  these  will 
crowd  and  possibly  cause  stoppage  of  the  waste  tract. 
The  chief  reason  for  the  practical  dissection  recommended 


DRAWING   AND   DISMEMBERING  POULTRY        363 

is  to  make  it  possible  so  to  connect  symptoms  with  actual 
causes  that  the  worker  can  avoid  the  train  of  circum- 
stance which  brought  about  the  wreck  of  his  hopes,  and 
the  loss  of  his  bird.  Practice  in  full  dissection,  after  the 
surgeon's  processes,  will  not  be  necessary  to  most  poultry- 
men,  though  it  is  sometimes  taught,  at  least  in  part,  at 
the  poultry  schools.  In  serious  cases,  where  microscopic 
work  is  necessary,  the  State  Experiment  Station  is  a 
safe  helper  and  usually  a  willing  one. 


XXIX 
ADVERTISING    FANCY   STOCK 

Taking  the  Fever  at  Shows  — Care  to  Get  Good  Stock  - 
The  Beginner's  Education  in  Quality  —  "  Utility  "  - 
Classified  Advertising  best  for  Beginner  —  A  Great 
Blunder  —  Sample  Advertisements,  Good  and  Bad  — 
The     Worst     Error  —  Unconvincing     Advertising  — 
Throwing  away   Money  —  Advertising  with  Dignity 
-The  "Run"  of  Prices  for  Birds  — Prices  on  Exhi- 
bition Stock 

LEARNING  to  raise  first-class  chicks,  to  handle  stock  for 
its  comfort  and  the  owner's  profit,  to  produce  fertile  eggs 
and  to  gain  a  fair  idea  of  birds,  may  well  give  a  Beginner 
enough  to  keep  his  mind  and  hands  busy  for  several 
seasons.  Strictly  speaking,  no  one  has  any  business 
with  fancy  stock  as  a  good  material  proposition  until  he 
has  mastered  the  mechanical  part  of  poultry  raising  and 
handling. 

Yet,  it  often  comes  about  that  the  Beginner  gets  his 
first  impulse  toward  poultry  raising  at  a  great  exhibition. 
In  such  case  he  will  hardly  be  satisfied,  even  at  the  first, 
with  anything  less  than  stock  which  is  "  good  "  from  the 
Standard  point  of  view.  To  get  anything  really  high 
grade,  he  must -usually  have  some  money  to  invest,  un- 
less he  is  lucky  enough  to  have  friends  who  will  give 
him  a  start.  Many  poultrymen,  however,  are  on  the 
lookout  for  some  one  with  plenty  of  range  who  will  raise 
birds  for  them,  the  owner  often  furnishing  all  eggs  and 
taking  what  he  chooses  of  the  stock  (according  to  the 

364 


366         THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

agreement  made)  at  a  set  price,  which  is  not  very  high. 
While  not  the  best  way,  this  is  a  feasible  way  in  which  a 
man  with  a  farm  but  without  spare  capital  can  get  a 
start  with  really  high-class  stock.  Men  who  know  their 
business  say  that  they  would  rather  have  a  fair  bird  from 
good  stock  than  one  of  exceptionally  good  appearance 
which  had  not  good  blood  lines  behind  it.  It  is  on  these 
blood  lines  that  the  skilled  fancier  relies  to  get  him  the 
accumulative  forces  which  will  insure  him  continuancy 
in  producing  the  best.  This  continuancy  is  the  one  as- 
set of  greatest  value  to  the  fancier. 

All  other  statements  notwithstanding,  it  is  not  always 
safe  to  rely  on  getting  good  stock  from  any  fancier 
merely  because  he  ranks  as  "  a  good  breeder."  "  Buy 
of  a  man  who  has  a  reputation  for  having  good  stock 
and  you  are  safe,"  is  very  common  advice  to  the  novice ; 
but  this  is  far  from  being  the  real  story.  There  are 
men  in  the  country  with  the  reputation  of  breeding  good 
stock  going  back  twenty-five  years  or  more,  some  of 
them  judges,  who  are  rated  by  those  who  know  them 
best  as  "good  fellows  to  keep  watch  of."  Some  who 
have  the  widest  reputation  as  winners  in  best  shows,  and 
some  who  crow  loudest  in  the  public  prints,  will  fleece 
every  man  who  does  not  know  what  he  wants.  This,  of 
course,  usually  means  the  Beginner.  I  could  mention 
half  a  dozen  whose  advertisements  are  known  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  who  are  not  trusted  by  the 
breeders  at  large  who  know  them.  They  have  good 
stock,  but  not  all  their  stock  is  good,  nor  are  their  busi- 
ness methods  above  suspicion.  Another  point  is  that 
the  Beginner,  not  having  been  educated  up  to  the  price 
which  the  best  stock  brings,  asks  for  the  best  at  a  price 


ADVERTISING  FANCY   STOCK  367 

suited  only  to  the  utility  grade,  and  the  expert  fancier 
gets  rather  in  the  habit  of  regarding  him  as  "  an  inno- 
cent "  who  expects  always  more  than  any  one  of  experi- 
ence would  or  could  give  him  for  his  money. 

This  is  not  by  any  means  to  say  that  all  fanciers  with 
reputations  are  crooked.  I  know  men  in  the  fancy  who 
are  most  painfully  honest.  The  statements  above  are 
necessary  in  order  to  forewarn  the  Beginner  not  to  bank 
alone  on  a  reputation  for  having  good  stock.  Let  him 
deal  with  those  whom  he  or  his  friends  know  to  have  both 
good  stock  and  good  will  and  integrity. 

There  is  still  another  side  to  this,  which  is,  to  speak 
frankly,  that  the  Beginner  himself,  when  he  first  begins 
to  raise  fancy  stock  for  sale,  is  quite  as  likely  as  any 
one  to  prey  upon  the  public.  This,  not  because  he  is 
willfully  dishonest,  but  simply  because  he  is  a  Beginner. 
There  are  people  who  sell  stock  without  ever  having 
seen  the  Standard  of  Perfection,  the  fanciers'  law  of 
breeding.  They  may  think  that  their  stock  is  of  a  good 
strain,  but  they  do  not  know  the  distinction  between 
the  middle-grade  specimen  and  the  first-class  one.  The 
higher  the  grade,  the  smaller  the  variation  which  adds 
ten  or  fifteen  or  twenty-five  or  fifty  dollars  in  value.  In 
large  shows,  it  often  takes  an  exceedingly  good  judge  to 
see  much  difference  between  the  first  and  the  sixth  prize 
bird,  in  what  is  called  a  "  hot  class  ";  that  is,  a  class  in 
which  the  prize  is  hotly  contested.  The  Standard  of 
Perfection,  toward  whose  demands  each  fancier  must 
breed  his  stock)  contains  working  rules  for  constant  use. 
It  is,  in  effect,  the  judges'  and  fanciers'  pocket  reference 
book,  to  be  consulted  on  every  occasion  of  difficulty  or 
uncertainty. 


368 


THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


Any  one  who  does  not  know  the  real  value  of  his  in- 
dividual birds  may  always  advertise  birds  of  Utility 
Standard-bred  grade  and  do  it  honestly,  as  the  phrase 
"  Utility  Standard-bred  "  is  translated  at  present.  The 
term  "  Utility  "  once  meant  very  superior  laying  stock 

that  was  also  Stand- 
ard-bred, but  which 
did  not  necessarily 
have  the  best  Stand- 
ard points.  As 
breeders  express  it, 
not  "  up "  in  fancy 
points ;  but  the  word 
"Utility,"  being  sus- 
ceptible of  various 
translations  and  being 
thus  an  easy  word  to 
juggle  with,  has  come 
to  mean  very  little 
more  than  birds  bred 
toward  the  Standard, 
but  not  meeting  exhi- 
bition requirements.  These  may  or  may  not  be  excep- 
tionally good  layers.  They  will,  at  least,  have  a  uni- 
formity lacking  in  birds  not  bred  to  the  Standard,  and 
probably  a  capability  to  produce  some  birds  much  better 
than  themselves  in  Standard  requirements.  The  uni- 
formity will  tend  to  make  them  superior  market  stock, 
and  they  may  be  quite  as  good  layers  as  the  average  of 
their  breed,  or  even  better.  A  few  breeders  offer  high- 
grade  Utility  stock  and  explain  how  they  have  bred  very 
carefully  for  exceptional  laying  qualifications.  These 


Fancy  Stock  Acquiring  Hardiness  : 
A  "  Utility  "  Quality 


ADVERTISING  FANCY  STOCK  369 

have  as  good  a  right  to  exceptional  prices  as  has  the 
fancier,  pure  and  simple,  and  such  stock  is  in  strong 
demand,  while  the  supply  is  restricted. 


At  Five  Weeks  Thrifty  Leghorn  Chicks  are  Beautifully  Fledged.     The  Winter 
Layer  of  High  Priced  Eggs  must  Feather  Well.     (Cornell  Photo.) 

In  considering  matters  pertaining  to  advertising,  an 
early  question  to  arise  is  whether  to  use  the  cheapest  or 
the  highest-priced  mediums.  This  settled,  the  question 
as  to  comparative  values  of  "  classified  "  or  "  display  " 
advertising  at  once  presents  itself.  The  "  classified  " 
are  usually  brief  advertisements  set  uniformly  without 
display  type  except  a  leading  word  or  two,  under  special 
headings,  which  sometimes  serve  as  an  index,  being 
thus  arranged  in  alphabetical  order.  Display  advertis- 
ing may  occupy  from  half-an-inch  to  two  or  more  pages 
and  make  use  of  various  sizes  of  type,  of  spacing,  of 
set-off  lines  around  about  all  cuts  to  attract  special  at- 

2B 


370  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

tention.  A  good  "  classified  "  ad.  of  a  few  lines  will 
sell  all  that  a  small  place  has  to  offer,  if  kept  before  its 
public  in  one  or  two  good  mediums  continuously.  It 
will  sell  very  little  or  nothing,  unless  it  appears  regu- 
larly, offers  something  worth  while,  and  tells  the  buying 
public  why  the  goods  offered  are  better  than  something 
competitors  may  offer. 

One  of  the  greatest  blunders  the  Beginner  with 
advertising  makes  is  in  thinking  that  a  "transient"  ad- 
vertisement is  worth  anything.  Unless  it  offers  com- 
mandingly  good  special  bargains  in  a  very  convincing 
way,  it  is  only  a  catchall  for  good  money.  To  be  sure 
it  costs  little  ;  as  a  rule  it  is  worth  less. 

I  do  not  by  any  means  intend  to  decry  the  "classi- 
fied "  advertisement.  It  proves  a  good  selling  medium 
for  hundreds  of  small  breeders  every  selling  season,  and 
even  the  large  breeder  does  not  always  disdain  it.  I 
have  in  mind  one  breeder  carrying  a  single  breed  for 
years,  who  claims  to  be  its  leading  breeder  (and  who 
does  thousands  of  dollars'  worth  of  business,  I  have  no 
doubt,  each  year),  yet  I  do  not  recall  having  seen  a  dis- 
play ad.  over  his  name  at  any  time.  He  uses  the  "  clas- 
sified "  columns  of  all  the  better  poultry  papers,  and 
apparently  these  sell  his  immense  stock.  He  is  an 
exception,  but  he  proves  the  value  of  a  classified  ad- 
vertisement well  used.  I  dare  to  say  that  far  less 
money  is  "  sunk "  in  classified  advertisements  than  in 
the  display  columns.  It  is  a  strange  bit  of  psychology 
that  the  average  small  advertiser  will  "bite  "at  so  much 
a  word,  when  he  would  not  advertise  at  all  at  so  much 
a  line,  yet  the  service  may  cost  him  very  nearly  the 
same  in  the  two  cases.  That  this  class  of  advertising 


ADVERTISING  FANCY  STOCK  371 

is  a  good  thing  for  the  publications  is  presumptively 
proved  by  the  fact  that  even  the  high-grade  magazines 
have  adopted  it.  Some  publishers  get  good  patronage 
in  small  classified  offerings  when  they  could  not  get  an 
opening  for  display  advertising. 

The  matter  of  adapting  the  advertising  space  to  the 
amount  of  stock  to  be  sold  is  a  vital  one  to  the  Begin- 
ner, who,  unless  his  advertising  pays,  may  be  in  a  sad 
case.  He  is  almost  sure,  however,  to  need  education  in 
percentages  ;  that  is,  he  must  not  be  horrified  to  learn 
that  from  20  to  40  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  goods 
sold  must  go  to  advertising  expenses.  Without  a  good 
follow-up  system,  even  good  advertising  may  mean  only 
one  sale  out  of  seven  inquiries.  This  means  much  un- 
necessary work  for  the  returns,  too. 

A  few  sample  advertisements  will  show  what  I  mean 
by  good  advertising  more  clearly  than  any  other  words 
can  do.  These  are  from  current  periodicals  with  change 
of  names,  etc.,  sufficient  to  disguise  them.  "  17000  White 
Wyandottes,  the  largest  and  best  flock  in  the  world.  See 
large  advertisement.  John  Smith,  Oberlin,  Ohio."  This 
advertisement  has  only  two  points  of  value,  viz. :  to  call 
attention  to  the  large  size  of  the  plant  and  to  the  large 
advertisement ;  yet  one  has  to  look  through  pages  of  ad- 
vertisements to  find  the  large  one,  and  any  one  who  is 
familiar  with  general  advertising  knows  that  the  single, 
half-direct  statement  which  this  short  ad.  makes  is  not 
true  —  just  "  buncombe. " 

"Home  Poultry  Plant,  John  M.  Smythe,  Poulterer, 
Town  Hall,  Texas.  White  Dorkings,  Langshans,  White 
Orpingtons,  and  Rose-Comb  Black  Minorcas,  and  some 
fine  cockerels  for  sale.  Eggs  in  season.  Satisfaction 


372  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

guaranteed."  What  can  you,  the  Beginner,  say  is 
wrong  with  this  advertisement?  Doesn't  it  give  the 
name,  breed,  location,  the  name  of  the  plant  and  a 
guarantee  ?  Yes,  all  of  these,  but  the  guarantee  is  the 
only  thing  that  every  other  breeder  of  the  same  varieties 
may  not  also  be  giving.  "  Fine  cockerels  "  are  offered. 
Oh,  yes,  but  the  word  "  fine"  can  be  translated  in  twenty 
different  ways  by  twenty  different  persons.  The  owner 
thinks  them  fine  and  guarantees  them  and  his  eggs  in  a 
general  way,  but  he  gives  no  prices,  which  means  at 
least  seven  letters  for  him  to  write  where  one  might 
have  done,  if  his  advertisement  draws  attention  at  all. 
Such  an  advertisement  is  not  definite  enough,  has  no 
distinctiveness ;  but,  it  fills  five  lines  of  page  space. 

Now  see  what  another  advertiser  has  gotten  into  six 
lines :  "Trap-nested  Orono  Columbian  Wyandottes,  the 
big  kind.  Bred  ten  years  for  size  and  heavy  laying. 
Raised  on  free  range,  housed  in  open-front  houses.  No 
healthier  or  better  layers  known.  Eggs,  100,  $5  ;  50, 
$3.  Free  circulars.  Asahel  Jones,  Hallmark,  Indiana.'' 

It  must  be  admitted  that  what  the  advertiser  says  and 
what  the  buyer  can  also  read  between  the  lines  are  the 
latter's  only  guides  to  the  actual  facts.  Here,  it  is  shown 
between  the  lines  that  the  advertiser  knows  the  modern 
methods  of  getting  stock  that  is  productive,  well  grown, 
healthy  and  improving  and  that  will  give  hatchable  eggs. 
The  rest,  perhaps,  the  buyer  must  take  on  trust,  but  the 
seller  refers  to  a  well-known  source  of  good  stock  as  the 
source  of  his  own,  and  he  states  that  he  trap  nests,  selects, 
works  for  vigorous  health  both  in  raising  and  in  winter 
housing  ;  and,  he  does  not  make  the  mistake  of  charging 
for  his  circulars.  Moreover,  his  prices  are  very  attrac- 


374  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

tive.  A  certain  "book"  offered  the  public  uses  half  its 
pages  in  lauding  the  stock  of  the  writer  of  it,  who  in 
addition  asks  two  stamps  for  his  price  list.  Exploiting 
the  public,  this,  with  a  vengeance ! 

I  take  it  for  granted  that  the  Beginner  is  keen  to 
know  the  very  worst  mistake  an  advertiser  can  make. 
In  my  view,  it  is  to  present  himself  to  a  stranger  with  a 
palpable  untruth  on  his  lips.  Many  experts  consider  a 
convincing  argument  to  be  the  acme  of  good  advertising. 
It  seems  to  me  that  the  advertiser  who  makes  a  state- 
ment false  on  the  face  thrusts  this  argument  full  into  the 
reader's  mouth :  "  If  this  man  lies  in  getting  my  atten- 
tion and  telling  me  about  his  goods,  would  I  not  be  an 
idiot  to  believe  that  he  will  be  honest  when  he  fills  his 
orders?" 

The  public  advertising  mediums  themselves  do  not  al- 
ways set  the  best  of  examples  in  this  respect.  Hardly  one 
of  them  bidding  for  patronage  but  will  insist  that,  no  mat- 
ter how  many  times  an  advertiser  has  been  disappointed, 
it  will  make  good  for  him.  A  few  periodicals  have  offered 
to  repeat  advertisements  free  if  their  claim  prove  untrue, 
which  is  in  effect  selling  at  half  price,  advertising  which 
may  or  may  not  prove  of  value. 

Beside  the  picture  of  a  man  who  seems  to  be  trying 
to  look  two  ways  at  once  appears,  in  a  modern  advertise- 
ment, a  voucher  for  the  value  of  a  certain  guide  to  the 
poultryman,  —  ''With  more  sound,  practical  information 
in  it  on  the  things  you  want  to  know  than  any  other 
book  published."  All  the  problems  are  solved,  all  the 
secrets  revealed,  in  this  marvelous  book  —  yet  just  under 
my  eye  lie  two  similar  books,  one  sold  through  several 
editions  at  five  dollars  per  copy,  each  of  them  claiming 


ADVERTISING  FANCY   STOCK  375 

to  inculcate  all  necessary  knowledge  into  the  would-be 
learner  and  each  as  positive  in  its  statements  as  the 
English  language  permits.  Each  claims,  moreover,  to 
show  the  only  correct  method  of  handling  domestic  fowls 
for  profit,  and  each  is  the  exact  opposite  of  the  other  in  the 
most  "  essential"  points  noted. 

A  few  pages  over,  in  the  same  periodical,  I  turn  to  a 
big  incubator  advertisement  telling  how  a  customer  won 
the  prize  with  the  machine  there  offered,  "  against  all 
other  machines,"  by  hatching  every  egg  to  the  entire 
capacity  of  her  machine.  This  incubator  is  accompanied 
by  a  brooder  guaranteed  to  raise  more  healthy  chicks 
"  than  any  other  brooder  made."  The  whole  shored  up 
by  an  iron-clad  guarantee  to  refund  money  after  a  three 
months'  test  if  the  machines  are  not  "  exactly  as  repre- 
sented "  in  the  advertisement. 

Just  beyond  this  is  the  offer  of  machines  from  a  com- 
pany claiming  "the  largest  egg  farm  and  chick-hatch- 
ing plant  in  the  world."  It  offers  a  "  perfect  equip- 
ment." Its  hatcher  will  outhatch  any  other  incubator 
(see  ante)  and  its  brooder  is  the  best  substitute  ever  de- 
vised for  Nature's  method  of  chick  raising. 

A  little  farther  on  a  company  says  proudly,  "We  are 
the  originator  of  a  flannel  to  lay  on  the  chicks'  backs." 
No  need,  perhaps,  to  add  that  this  company's  brooder 
"  stands  above  all  in  correct  brooding  princi/ta/r." 

The  next  to  demand  extra  attention  contains  every 
one  of  the  good  features  recommended  by  government 
experts  for  a  first-class  machine  and  "  is  the  only  incu- 
bator that  does  contain  them  all."  This  advertisement  is 
accompanied  by  a  quotation  in  duplicate  of  the  six  re- 
quirements named.  This  is  a  rather  good  advertisement 


376  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

and  as  reasonable  in  its  statements  as  one  of  experience 
would  expect  an  advertisement  to  be  —  yet  it  says  that 
failure  and  disappointment  are  impossible,  and  that  it 
"  makes  good  every  claim  in  every  hatch,"  while  its 
book  gives  "  the  whole  truth  on  the  incubator  question." 

Over  the  leaf  is  another  whose  manufacturer  "  expects 
to  revolutionize  the  industry  "  because  he  has  discovered 
a  new  insulating  material.  He  has  never  seen  or  heard 
of  any  other  incubator  that  could  even  rival  his  own. 

The  next  one  is  guaranteed  as  the  best  hatcher  on 
the  market  at  any  price,  and  affirms  that  the  buyer  of  it 
takes  no  chances. 

Soon  comes  another  manufacturer  who  says  that  he 
will  let  his  machine  stand  on  its  record.  Marvelous,  of 
course ! 

Still  another  has  a  regulator  that  never  has  to  be 
touched.  "  The  most  perfect  ever  invented  "  and  is  the 
only  machine  "  that's  right." 

The  next  one  "  hatches  and  broods  perfectly."  The 
next  guarantees  perfect  workmanship,  perfect  material, 
and  perfect  operation. 

The  next  is  "  without  a  doubt  the  most  careful  incu- 
bator made."  It  is  "  the  only  machine  that  is  scientifi- 
cally correct." 

The  next  that  comes  to  my  eye  has  a  new  phrase 
which  recalls  the  framers  of  our  Constitution  —  "They 
hatch  alike  in  the  hands  of  women,  beginners,  and  ex- 
perts." Surely  this  is  the  phrase  to  meet  our  need  in 
this  chapter !  They  are  "  the  highest-grade  incubators 
built  anywhere  by  anybody,"  and  one  needs  no  previous 
experience  to  operate  them  successfully. 

If  the   Beginner  should  wade  through  the  slush  of 


- 


«o 

M  ~~" 

L 

£"2 


378         THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

words,  words,  words,  that  fill  so  many  pages  of  advertis- 
ing in  his  favorite  poultry  papers,  he  might,  with  suf- 
ficient study,  work  out  a  principle  of  advertising  that 
would  form  a  working  model  for  himself.  No  one  can 
deny  that  the  advertiser  who  must  meet  so  much  com- 
petition must  make  his  advertisements  tell —  wJiat  they 
may  "  tell  "  is  another  story. 

Careful  scanning  of  the  spaces  of  these  big  advertis- 
ers will  show  that  they  fall  into  two  main  classes,  viz.: 
(a)  those  who  try  to  prove  themselves  better  than  all 
others  and  spend  much  space  drawing  invidious  com- 
parisons ;  (£)  those  who  utilize  all  their  space  in  telling 
the  good  points  of  their  machines  and  show  why  they 
are  good.  These  latter  advertisements  are  usually  far 
more  dignified  than  the  others  and  in  the  long  run  more 
convincing.  I  notice,  too,  that  the  manufacturers  of 
machines  known  to  be  the  leaders  are  not,  as  a  rule,  too 
free  with  their  guarantees. 

As  an  example  of  what  a  machine  that  is  "perfec- 
tion "  when  it  meets  the  buyer  can  do  for  his  faith  later, 
I  might  tell  the  brief  story  of  a  recent  Beginner.  This 
Beginner  sought  advice  from  me,  but  admitted  that  he 
was  favorably  impressed  with  the  machines  offered  by  a 
certain  city  department  store.  They  were  beautifully 
described,  fully  guaranteed.  The  machine  was  to  be 
the  best  incubator  the  buyer  ever  saw  or  even  heard  of, 
and  guaranteed  to  hatch  every  egg  that  was  both  fresh 
and  fertile,  and  also  by  some  peculiar  power  to  bring 
stronger  chicks  than  any  other  incubator  could  do. 
Despite  my  positive  advice  to  let  department  store  in- 
cubators strictly  alone,  my  get-rich-quick  Beginner 
bought  this  attractive  machine.  Before  the  first  hatch 


ADVERTISING  FANCY  STOCK  379 

was  out,  the  unseasoned  wood  of  which  it  was  built  had 
shrunk  until  a  ringer  could  be  laid  in  the  cracks. 

This  matter  of  advertising  is  an  exceedingly  important 
one  for  the  Beginner,  because  the  average  person  may 
throw  away  money  in  advertising  far  faster  than  he  can 
make  it  through  poultry  raising.  To  compose  an  ad- 
vertisement with  such  brevity  that  it  does  not  tell  its 
story  is  to  throw'  away  all  money  expended  on  it.  A 
buyer  must  be  spoken  to  very  clearly,  and  courteously, 
if  positively,  and  he  must  be  offered  some  kind  of  a  lure. 
This  does  not  mean  deceit,  but  it  does  mean  that  the 
advertiser  must  look  into  the  buyer's  mind ;  must  see 
mentally  what  the  buyer  wants;  and  must  offer  just 
that  if  he  has  it,  in  terms  which  make  it  attractive. 

Imported  stock,  heavy  laying  strains,  anything,  in 
fact,  that  is  difficult  to  get,  is  a  lure  to  the  buyer.  If  the 
Beginner  has  begun  so  that  he  has  it,  he  is  to  be  con- 
gratulated, even  though  he  has  had  to  pay  good  prices, 
for  he  can  advertise  it  with  a  clear  conscience,  with  con- 
fidence and  with  dignity,  and  he  need  not  fear  to  speak 
too  strongly  provided  that  he  keep  within  the  bounds  of 
truth  and  of  dignity.  Dignity,  the  dignity  of  self-re- 
spect, is  not  "  offishness  " ;  that  is  a  bar  to  the  buyer. 
"  Friendliness  "  is  one  of  the  best  words  for  the  Begin- 
ner who  would  make  for  himself  a  place  in  the  Fancy. 

Low  prices  are  a  lure,  chiefly  to  other  Beginners ;  yet 
Beginners  mtist  charge  comparatively  low  prices,  until 
they  have  proved  the  value  of  their  goods  in  competi- 
tion. An  expert  breeder  is  likely  to  cast  aside  an  ad- 
vertisement that  puts  prices  too  low,  because  he  knows 
that  the  average  Beginner,  not  knowing  well  even  the 
good  points  of  the  stock  he  sells,  does  not  know  how  to 


380  THE    BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

select  birds.  Exhibition  stock  prices  are  always  "  a 
matter  of  correspondence."  Fancy  values  are  in  a 
sense  fictitious,  and  the  character  of  the  shows,  the 
strength  of  the  competition,  the  number  of  buyers 
present,  etc.,  all  have  their  effect  on  prices ;  also  the 
number  of  birds  equally  good  in  the  breeder's  stock  at 
home.  The  bird  priced  at  $500  in  the  catalogue  may 
not  get  any  valued  place  under  the  Judge.  "  Prohibi- 
tive" prices  in  the  Show  Catalogues  save  the  specimen 
to  its  owner,  while  impressing  the  public. 

In  most  breeds,  there  is  a  certain  "  run  "  of  prices,  a 
knowledge  of  which  will  make  fanciers  say  a  certain  bird 
is  "  worth  "  about  so  much.  Birds  of  small  breeds  have 
lower  prices  than  larger  ones,  as  a  rule ;  breeds  having 
a  "  boom  "  on,  command  more  exceptional  prices  than 
others,  even  as  exceptional  birds  always  do.  Two  and 
three  dollars  are  prices  freely  asked  for  "  utility  stock." 
"  Fair  breeders  "  may  bring  from  three  to  five  dollars, 
stock  rating  as  strictly  high-class  breeders  anywhere 
from  ten  to  fifty  dollars,  this  depending  on  the  buyer's 
needs  and  purse.  Exhibition  birds  may  bring  any  price 
upon  which  the  buyer  and  seller  may  agree,  up  to  hun- 
dreds of  dollars.  These  are  only  rough  statements,  and 
the  law  of  supply  and  demand  is  not  a  dead  letter,  even 
in  the  exhibition  room.  The  winner  of  the  "  blue  "  in  a 
popular  breed  may  have  the  "  supply,"  but,  if  only  one 
buyer  demands  the  bird,  the  price  may  fall  far  below  that 
possible  when  many  buyers  compete  for  the  blue-ribbon 
specimen. 


XXX 

SHIPPING  TO    NEW   YORK 

Requirements  of  New  York  Market  —  The  Perfect 
Product  —  Producers'  "  Price  Current "  —  Details  of 
Dressing  —  Details  of  Packing  —  Dry  Picked  Stock 
not  always  Highest  in  Price  —  Shipping  Details  — 
Where  many  Fail  —  Orange  Boxes  for  Eggs  Faulty 
—  The  Standard  Package  Helps  Sales  —  Basic  Prin- 
ciples of  Shipping  Eggs  —  Important  Market  Sea- 
sons —  Dealers  Buying  Outright 

THE  requirements  of  the  various  large  cities  differ 
quite  materially  in  some  points.  But,  inasmuch  as  more 
people  probably  ship  to  New  York  than  to  any  other 
city,  I  give  New  York  methods  and  requirements.  These 
will  prove  a  good  basis  for  any  one  who  wants  to  ship  to 
any  city,  as  they  will  give  an  idea  of  the  points  necessary 
to  cover.  The  one  seeking  information  can  then  write 
to  a  commission  man  in  the  city  of  his  choice,  and  will 
receive,  from  good  firms,  all  the  help  they  can  give  him. 
This  is  not,  however,  the  best  way  to  prepare  for  ship- 
ments ;  because,  a  visit  to  the  commission  district  in  the 
city  to  which  he  desires  to  ship  would  be  in  the  nature  of 
a  revelation  to  any  would-be  shipper,  and  would  save  him 
from  the  possibility  of  making  mistakes  at  points  concern- 
ing which  he  might  never  think  of  making  inquiry  or  of 
suspecting  difficulty.  When  such  a  visit  cannot  be  made, 
such  information  as  this  chapter  contains  may  save  from 
many  pitfalls,  and  may  turn  a  shipment  from  loss  to 
profit,  in  many  an  instance. 

381 


382  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

The  Beginner  in  shipping  needs  to  get  firmly  fixed  in 
his  mind  first  of  all  that  condition  and  appearance  count 
against  everything  else,  in  a  city  market.  The  finest  of 
goods  in  quality  are  likely  to  go  at  a  loss  to  the  shipper, 
unless  these  two  points  are  in  his  favor.  When  they 
are,  he  makes  more  than  a  sale,  more  than  a  profit ;  he 


Leghorn    Chicks    Fledge  Early :    A  Fifty  Dollar  "  Specimen "  or    a  Market 
Bird ;  Who  Can  Foretell  ? 

makes,  in  addition,  a  customer  who  will  call  for  his  goods 
again  (if  he  has  stenciled  them  properly),  and  he  makes 
an  interested  -friend  in  the  commission  man,  who  is  as 
keen  to  find  good  stuff  to  sell  as  any  producer  is  to  find  a 
market,  and  for  the  same  reason,  —  his  living  depends 
on  it. 

Many  factors   go  to    make   up    good    condition   and 
appearance  in  a  shipment,  especially  of   poultry   car* 


SHIPPING  TO  NEW   YORK  383 

casses.  The  ancestry,  the  growth,  the  fattening,  the  man- 
ner of  killing,  of  scalding  and  of  picking,  the  manner 
of  packing,  the  package,  the  filling  material,  all  help  to 
make  up  that  perfect  product  which  reaches  the  market 
just  when  and  just  as  the  market  desires  it;  or  that  un- 
desirable which  figures  so  often  in  the  market  reports 
at  the  very  lowest  price,  and  is  lumped  in  with  "Nearly 
all  lots  arriving  are  poor  in  quality  or  condition"  and 
goes  at  a  forced  sale.  You  would  be  surprised  to  know 
how  often  I  heard  the  statement,  so  emphatic  as  to  imply 
that  it  was  an  end  of  argument,  "They  are  not  wanted," 
in  the  course  of  a  two-hour  round  of  the  commission 
markets  of  New  York  City.  You  need  to  learn  first  of 
all  that  to  furnish  what  the  market  wants  is  the  way  to 
competence.  The  market  will  pay  highest  rates  and 
more  than  the  highest  quoted  rates  for  goods  which  are 
the  best  grade  of  the  kind  of  stuff  it  wants.  This  is  why 
country  buyers  throw  out  so  much  that  is  offered  by 
producers  :  they  have  learned  the  lesson. 

The  Producers'  Price-Current  Supplement,  of  New 
York,  gives  explicit  instructions  on  all  points.  Having 
found  a  Commission  merchant  whom  he  has  full  reason 
to  believe  is  reliable,  the  expecting  shipper  should  write 
him,  asking  the  conditions  of  the  market  and  special 
instructions.  He  can  have  from  this  source  stencils, 
for  marking,  gratis.  The  Commission  people  prefer,  al- 
ways, the  customer  who  will  send  regular  shipments,  so 
that  they  may  know  something  of  what  they  have  to 
depend  on. 

In  turkeys,  none  should  be  dressed  that  weigh  less 
than  seven  pounds,  in  September.  Later,  eight  pounds 
should  be  the  smallest.  Thin,  "  framy  "  birds  are  al- 


384  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

ways  a  drug.  Spring  chickens  should  not  weigh  less 
than  one  pound,  and  this  weight  only  very  early  ;  as 
soon  as  chickens  are  in  fair  supply,  nothing  less  than 
one-and-one-half  pound  weights  will  find  favor.  Since 
Long  Island  can  send  young  ducks,  full  grown,  very  early 
in  the  season,  and  ships  them  by  the  ten  thousands,  it  is 
but  folly  for  any  other  shippers  to  try  to  meet  this  com- 
petition with  stock  less  than  the  best  and  of  full  size  or 
nearly  so.  "  There  is  no  call  whatever  for  stock  weigh- 
ing less  than  3  and  4  pounds  each." 

In  all  handling,  extreme  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid 
bruising  or  defacing  the  carcass.  A  cardinal  point,  pre- 
paratory to  packing,  is  to  get  rid  of  the  animal  heat.  A 
process  called  "  plumping "  finishes  the  preparation  of 
scalded  stock.  It  consists  of  dipping  the  birds  into  hot 
and  cold  water  alternately.  But  even  with  this,  there 
is  a  right  way.  The  first  dip  is  into  water  just  under 
the  boiling  point,  for  about  two  seconds.  The  cooling 
from  this  must  be  gradual,  lest  the  drain  of  blood  be 
stopped  short.  Hence,  cool  water,  of  natural  tempera- 
ture, follows  the  hot  dip,  for  a  twenty-minute  bath.  If 
to  be  packed  in  ice  for  warm  weather  shipment,  a  sec- 
ond, cooler  bath  of  an  hour  or  less  follows  the  first,  and 
the  ice-water  bath  of  eight  to  ten  hours  follows  and 
completes  the  process.  Is  it  any  wonder  that  cold-stored 
poultry  lacks  flavor,  when  it  has  all  this  soaking  at  the 
very  start  ? 

Poultry  or  sugar  barrels  are  used  for  shipping  this 
class  of  goods,  the  latter  being  carefully  washed  to  re- 
move traces  of  sugar.  The  first  layer  (bottom)  is  of 
ice,  then  poultry  and  ice  alternately  till  the  barrel  is 
almost  full.  A  piece  of  burlap  and  a  final  layer  of 


2c 


386  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

cracked  ice  follow,  on  the  top  of  which  is  laid  a  large 
chunk  of  solid  ice.  All  is  hooped  down  close  by  a  last 
piece  of  added  burlap.  The  fowls  are  packed  in  rings 
around  the  outside  the  barrel,  heads  down,  legs  straight, 
and  pointed  toward  the  center,  so  that  the  next  layer 
of  ice  will  fall  between  the  poultry  and  the  staves.  The 
middle  of  the  layer  is  filled  in  at  will,  just  as  they  seem 
to  fit  most  closely. 

The  water  for  dressing  should  be  at  boiling  point,  but 
not  boiling.  To  overscald  makes  the  yellow  outer  skin 
graze  off ;  to  underscald  increases  the  chances  that  the 
stock  will  become  slippery  on  the  way  to  market. 

In  cold  weather,  poultry  is  packed  dry,  without  pack- 
ing between,  or  with  only  clean,  hand-thrashed,  bright 
wheat  or  rye  straw,  which  must  also  be  dry.  If  no 
packing  is  used,  thick  manila  paper  lines  the  barrel. 
Whether  scalded  or  dry-picked,  two  points  are  vital : 
every  bit  of  animal  heat  must  be  out  of  the  stock,  and 
the  bodies  must  be  perfectly  dry  before  packing.  If 
not,  bad  conditions  will  shortly  develop. 

The  customary  belief  and  advice  that  dry  picking  is 
always  the  only  first-class  method,  is  a  fallacy.  Thin 
poultry  brings  more  when  scalded,  as  it  thus  looks  a 
bit  less  thin.  Offerings  of  chickens  and  turkeys  may 
be  dry  picked  only  when  very  fat  and  of  fine  quality. 
Ducks  and  geese  should  always  be  scalded.  This  is 
done  by  sousing  them  up  and  down  in  water  just  at 
boiling  point  three  or  four  or  more  times,  till  the  water 
penetrates  to  the  skin.  They  are  then  wrapped  in 
blanket  cloth  about  two  minutes ;  this  makes  the  down 
roll  off  with  the  feathers. 

Packages  should  be  clean,  neatly  made,  and  as  light 


SHIPPING  TO  NEW  YORK  387 


Cold  Storage  Chicken.     (Government  Year  Book) 


388  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

as  the  size  will  bear.  The  latest  New  York  information 
sheet  at  the  time  of  writing  says :  "  Use  either  barrels, 
or  cases  holding  about  200  pounds.  The  latter  are  best 
for  turkeys  and  geese."  In  dry  packing,  the  birds  are 
stowed  in  very  snugly,  breasts  down,  and  legs  out 
straight,  the  package  being  a  little  overfull,  so  that 
the  cover  will  press  down  on  the  contents. 

I  notice  that  Cornell  is  approving  and  manufacturing 
a  smaller  package,  to  hold  two  dozen  fowls.  Dr.  Pen- 
nington,  the  government  representative,  favors  this  type. 
The  shipper  who  learns  all  he  can,  from  every  source, 
will  be  the  one  most  likely  to  win  out. 

Careful  addressing,  plain  and  neat  marking,  naming 
of  contents,  gross  weight  and  tare,  and  the  shipping 
mark  of  the  shipper  qr  his  name  all  tend  toward  satis- 
factory business.  Express  receipts  should  be  taken  and 
forwarded,  with  full  invoice  of  shipment,  by  mail.  In 
forwarding  by  express,  a  letter  of  advice  should  be  put 
in  one  package,  and  marked  ''bill"  on  outside.  This 
double  care  insures  that  the  firm  shall  get  the  advices 
straight,  in  case  anything  befalls  one  of  the  duplicates. 

I  asked  a  commission  merchant,  of  wide  experience, 
where  most  shippers  of  eggs  failed.  He  said,  "  In  the 
matter  of  packing  and  packages,"  mentioning  the  use 
of  orange  boxes  as  one  of  the  bad  habits  of  the  small 
shipper.  Having  seen  shipments  go  from  the  farm  end 
of  the  line,  I  knew  how  the  economical  farm  mind  looked 
upon  the  orange  box  with  fillers,  as  "just  as  good  "  as 
the  more  expensive  crate.  In  fact,  a  rather  large  ship- 
per had  recently  told  me  that  he  used  such  packages, 
cutting  the  boxes  in  two  parts,  if  a  half  case  were  needed. 
I  knew,  too,  how  often  the  farm  shippers  complained 


SHIPPING  TO  NEW  YORK  389 

that  they  did  not  receive  full  market  quotations,  when 
they  sent  the  best  of  goods ;  and  that  they  were  charged 
with  incredible  losses. 

The  merchant  clarified  the  situation  by  saying  that 
the  orange  box  is  too  thin.  It  is  springy,  and  permits 
heavier  boxes  to  crowd  the  eggs  till  there  is  often  much 
breakage.  It  is  also  a  package  not  "standard."  Not 
even  the  poultry  show  world  is  more,  devoted  to  its 
"  Standard "  than  are  merchants  who  handle  market 
stuff  in  many  and  large  lots  to  a  "  standard  "  package. 
Figuring,  space,  and  other  necessary  detail  can  be  fitted 
to  a  standard  package  instantly,  and  without  loss.  The 
principle  is  the  same  as  when  the  farmer  becomes  de- 
voted to  the  bushel  crate  that  just  fits  so  many  of  his  needs, 
and  also  the  rack  he  has  had  made  on  purpose  to  carry 
them.  I  saw  a  fine,  special  rack,  made  by  adding  a  few 
boards  to  a  flat  hay  rigging,  on  which  a  New  York 
farmer  was  contentedly  drawing  fifty  crates  of  apples, 
all  on  one  level.  He  dragged  me  out  to  the  barn,  just 
in  order  to  see  how  nice  they  looked.  They  were  shoved 
from  the  rack,  almost,  in  unloading,  and  he  took  back  a 
load  of  empties,  clean  and  bright.  There  was  a  "  why  " 
behind  his  satisfaction  with  this  way  of  selling  apples. 
The  shipper,  if  he  cannot  follow  instructions  without  it, 
must  look  for  the  "  why  "  of  the  commission  merchant's 
requirements,  and  he  must  look  till  he  finds  it. 

"Eggs  must  be  clean,  and  of  good  size;  these  are 
basic  principles  of  successful  shipment,"  went  on  the 
dealer  who  knew  the  New  York  market  through  a  life- 
time of  selling  on  it.  "What  do  you  mean  by  good 
size?  "  "  I  mean  not  small."  I  laughed,  and  suggested, 
"Not  under  the  regulation  two  ounces?"  "Yes." 


3QO  THE  BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 

"  What  about  washing  ? "  "  Never  wash  an  egg  ;  they 
must  be  produced  clean" 

New  York's  needs  are  so  great  that  a  day  or  two  may 
clean  out  a  big  stock  of  stuff,  and  thus  it  comes  about 
that  only  a  day  or  two  may  work  much  change  in  a 
market  quotation,  if  inshipments  clog  up  somewhere,  or 
cease  suddenly.  The  railroads  try  to  avoid  piling  too 
much  stuff  on  one  market,  but  this  sometimes  occurs.  A 
frequent  shipper  needs  to  watch  the  market,  to  use  tele- 
phone and  telegraph  for  quick  information  as  to  changes, 
and  to  know  about  the  markets  which  are  recurrent, 
yet  special. 

The  important  holiday  markets  for  dressed  stuff  are 
Thanksgiving  Day,  Christmas,  and  New  Year's.  You 
want  a  good  fowl  —  one  a  little  extra,  at  these  times. 
Please  note :  so  does  every  one  besides  you  !  This  ex- 
plains the  fact  which  confronts  the  commission  merchant, 
that  the  holiday  call  is  largely  for  the  very  finest  grades. 
Up  to  Christmas,  big  turkeys  have  a  call ;  after  that, 
the  smaller  sizes  are  preferred.  The  preferred  holiday 
market  for  chickens  is  New  Year's ;  while  geese  sell 
best  at  Christmas. 

There  are  eight  Jewish  holiday  periods,  which  are 
variable,  but  concerning  which  advices  can  be  had  from 
the  dealers.  Some  want  all  kinds  of  fowls.  Others 
specify.  For  instance,  the  market  sheet  states  that  for 
the  Feast  of  Weeks,  good  fowls  are  especially  wanted ; 
for  Purim,  "fowls  and  prime  hen  turkeys."  During 
these  holidays,  the  demand  for  live  poultry  is  much 
larger  than  is  usual. 

The  tendency  is  everywhere  to  simplify  handling. 
The  farm  demands  it,  because  labor  is  not  to  be  had  for 


SHIPPING  TO  NEW  YORK 


391 


Freshly  Killed  Chicken,  with  Plump  Flesh.     (Government  Year  Book) 


3Q2  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

any  price.  The  city  markets  demand  it,  because  time 
is  precious,  delay  costly,  and  labor  also  costly.  I  in- 
quired about  the  proposed  selling  eggs  by  weight.  Com- 
mission men  said  that  it  would,  if  enforced,  cause  them 
infinite  trouble  and  loss.  One  firm  of  very  large  com- 
mission handlers  said  that  they  would  drop  the  whole 
business  were  such  a  law  enforced.  They  believed  it 
would  cause  grocers  less  trouble,  because  the  tendency 
is  to  sell  all  small  stuff  in  small  baskets,  or  rather  trays,  of 
a  standard  size.  The  weight  of  these  being  known,  they 
would  be  sold,  when  full,  as  always  of  a  certain  weight, 
without  weighing  the  sale. 

I  know  at  least  one  firm  of  Boston  dealers  who  furnish 
coops  for  live  poultry,  rebating  thei-r  cost  when  they  are 
received  full  of  poultry.  They  take  all  kinds  of  stock, 
and  make  it  as  easy  for  the  shipper  as  they  can.  These 
are  not  commission  men  ;  they  buy  outright,  and  offer 
a  stated  price  per  pound.  I  hope  this  method  of  buying 
will  spread.  It  is  far  more  satisfactory  for  the  produc- 
ing shipper,  who  hates  bitterly  to  pay  commissions.  I 
judge  by  its  development  each  year  since  beginning, 
that  the  business  is  also  satisfactory  to  the  firm.  Strong, 
light  coops  in  which  the  fowls  can  stand  easily  upright, 
are  recommended.  If  large,  they  should  be  partitioned. 
It  is  stated  that  overfeeding  on  the  start  is  likely  to 
make  the  poultry  dumpish  and  sick,  but  that  light  feeding 
may  be  indulged  in,  when  shipping  from  one-day-distant 
points.  New  York  law  does  not  permit  the  sale  of 
poultry  with  food  in  the  crop. 


XXXI 

FEATHERS   AND   THE   MOLT 

Down  Developing  into  Feathers  —  What  Makes  Color  in 
Feathers?  —  Prohibition  of  Wearing  Song-bird 
Feathers  Helps  Sales  of  Commoner  Feathers  —  Shop- 
made  Trimmings — Ducks  for  Feathers  First  —  The 
Dress  of  Birds  for  Protection — Feathers  as  Affecting 
Laying — Experiments  with  Molting  Hens  —  Foods 
for  Feathers  —  Feathers  Add  most  Value  to  Fowls 

THE  fancy  fowl  is  pretty  largely  a  creature  of  fine 
feathers.  But  there  is  more  to  the  question  of  feathers 
than  many  are  aware.  Feathers  are  really  but  modifica- 
tions of  the  skin.  The  down,  the  "hair,"  the  barbules, 
which  hook  together  and  make  up  the  flat  web  of  what 
we  call  a  quill  feather,  all  are  part  of  the  same  wonder- 
ful covering.  The  close  down  upon  the  infant  chick  is 
extended  and  shows  itself  as  fluffy  tips  upon  the  first 
natural  feathers  which  follow  it.  These  facts  have  long 
been  known.  A  more  curious  one  is  that  the  coloring 
of  the  coats  of  birds  is  not  always  caused  by  pigments  in 
the  body  of  the  bird.  Many  times  it  is  so  caused.  In 
other  instances  it  is  caused  by  this  color  substance,  in 
combination  with  a  special  arrangement  of  the  outer  sur- 
faces of  the  feathers.  And  again,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
brilliant  humming  birds,  it  is  due  "to  the  structure  of  the 
outer  surface  alone.  White  is  not  due  to  pigment,  but 
to  the  presence  of  innumerable  air  cells  in  the  substance 
of  the  feather."  A  study  of  feather  structure,  by 

393 


394  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

*means  of  a  pocket  microscope,  ought  to  be  of  consider- 
able aid  in  making  up  fancy  matings  in  some  breeds. 

More  and  more  the  States  are  coming  into  line  in  pro- 
hibiting the  wearing  of  song-bird  feathers.  Each  year 
skill  in  producing  handsome  and  effective  millinery 
trimmings,  neckwear,  and  other  decorative  feather 
work  increases,  till  it  now  seems  almost  like  wizardry. 
Each  year  the  "  back-to-nature  "  cry  increases  the  de- 
mand for  fancy  fishing  tackle.  All  these  things  mean 
more  demand  for  feathers  of  all  kinds.  Just  common 
feathers  and  brilliantly  colored  feathers. 

Not  far  from  my  home  lives  a  quiet  man  who  manu- 
factures fishing  tackle.  He  is  keen  for  brilliant  feathers 
of  many  kinds,  particularly  the  half-length  grades,  like 
hackle  feathers.  In  millinery,  glossy  feathers,  and  those 
of  any  brilliant  and  beautiful  colors,  as  well  as  all  well- 
formed  white  feathers  in  perfect  condition,  are  in  large 
demand.  The  substitution  of  "  wings,"  "  breasts,"  etc., 
for  ostrich  feathers  is  greater  as  each  autumn  comes 
around.  Great  quantities  of  these  are  now  artificial — 
shop-made.  It  is  to  the  interest  of  any  Beginner  to 
study  the  question  of  feathers  before  he  selects  his 
breeds,  especially  if  he  expects  to  become  a  large  pro- 
ducer. When  fowls  are  marketed  dressed  and  in  large 
numbers,  the  feathers  become  a  goodly  item,  either  of 
waste  or  of  income,  according  to  the  method  of  handling. 

Even  the  Httle  Indian  Runner  duck  will  give,  when 
matured,  nearly  one  fourth  of  a  pound  of  feathers  to  a 
picking.  If  dudk  feathers  are  sixty  cents  a  pound,  this 
means  fifteen  dollars  for  every  hundred  birds  dressed, 
and  will  pay  for  expert  dressing,  more  than  twice  over. 
If  the  early  ducks  were  retained  and  picked  three  times 


Below,  a  Starting  Feather  and  Its  Sheath.     Above,  Full-grown  Down 


396 


THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


in  a  season,  it  would  mean  an  income  from  the  feathers 
greater  than  the  profit  on  the  majority  of  chickens  sold. 
The  feed  necessary  to  carry  them  on  must,  of  course,  be 
considered.  Intended  breeders  should  not  be  plucked, 
unless  at  a  period  when  the  feathers  are  falling  natu- 


Ostriches  Five  Months  Old.     Fluffy  Skirt  Dancers  which  Give  Up  their  Own 
Decoration1  to  Decorate  Miladi.     (Government  Year  Book) 

rally.  It  is  stated  that  plucked  ducks  will  not  lay  as 
early,  nor  as  many  eggs ;  nor  will  the  eggs  be  as  fertile. 
In  other  words,  growing  feathers  is  a  drain  upon  the  en- 
tire system. 


FEATHERS  AND   THE  MOLT  397 

The  plumy  dress  of  the  birds  is  a  decoration  whose 
worth  we  value  fully  only  when  we  see  a  bird  which  has 
lost  it.  But  it  is  far  from  being  decoration  only,  and, 
beyond  the  matter  of  protection,  feathers  have  a  direct 
bearing  on  egg  production.  The  fowl  with  too  thin  a 
coat  is  not  a  good  winter  layer  in  a  cold  location ;  yet 
the  one  with  too  heavy  a  coat  is  not  likely  to  fall  into 
the  class  of  best  layers  at  all.  Those  birds  of  the  Amer- 
ican breeds  which  are  more  heavily  feathered  than  the 
average  of  their  kind,  are  apt  to  fall  below  the  average 
of  the  breed  in  laying  capacity.  Since  feathers  manipu- 
lated properly  by  the  breeder  who  is  working  up  a  strain, 
may  give  any  appearance  desired,  the  feathers  are  likely 
to  be  encouraged.  And,  since  feather  growth  requires 
much  the  same  nutritive  material  as  egg  production,  it 
is  easy  to  see  how  a  too  heavy  growth  of  feathers  might 
work  against  a  heavy  egg  output.  A  moderately  heavy, 
close-lapped  coat  of  feathers  is  the  ideal  protection  for  a 
laying  fowl.  The  wind  cannot  easily  penetrate  such 
a  coat,  and  it  takes  only  the  necessary  nutriment  to 
provide. 

Some  studies  in  molting  made  at  Cornell  University 
Experiment  Station  by  a  careful  young  woman  from  one 
of  the  Short  Courses,  Miss  Clara  Nixon,  showed  that 
maturing  birds  may  grow  several  coats  of  feathers  in  a 
single  season.  The  owner  of  the  highest  (claimed) 
record  for  Indian  Runners  showed  his  faith  in  his  stock 
by  entering  some  of  the  descendants  of  the  bird  making 
the  record  in  a  public  laying  competition.  They  made 
an  average  record  of  over  two  hundred  seventeen  each 
in  twelve  months.  He  accounts  in  part  for  this  "  poor 
showing  "  —  as  he  calls  it  —  by  the  fact  that  they  passed 


398  THE   BEGINNER  IN   POULTRY 

through  two  complete  molts  during  the  twelve  months* 
test.  Indeed,  the  Secretary's  report  stated  this  fact. 
It  is  well  known  that  hens  seldom  lay  during  the  heavier 
part  of  the  molt,  and  the  fowl  which  lays  on  until  late 
autumn  usually  molts  in  the  later  fall  and  winter.  This 
shows  something  of  the  bearing  of  feather  making  upon 
egg  production. 

Late  molting  appears,  from  some  of  the  work  at  Cor- 
nell, to  have  a  bearing  different  from  that  which  is  usu- 
ally supposed,  in  that  the  late  molters,  while  not  laying 
nearly  so  many  eggs  in  winter  as  those  which  molted 
earlier,  did  molt  in  less  time,  and  also  did  lay  more  eggs 
during  the  year.  From  this  one  experiment  it  must  be 
adduced  that  the  late  molting  bird  is  the  better  one  to 
keep,  since  the  extra  eggs  laid  by  these,  even  at  lower 
prices,  made  an  added  profit  of  about  $47  per  hundred 
hens  above  that  of  the  early  molting  birds.  The  fowls 
in  this  experiment  consisted  both  of  those  whose  molt 
had  been  "forced"  by  a  period  of  partial  summer  star- 
vation, followed  by  a  heavy  feeding,  and  those  which 
had  not  been  so  treated.  A  point  strikingly  shown  by 
the  charts  given,  is  that  the  line  showing  food  consumed 
climbs  upward  in  almost  exact  sympathy  with  the  up- 
ward trend  of  the  weight  lines,  and  the  egg  production 
lines  ;  except  that  food  consumed  and  weight  are  always 
a  little  in  advance  of  increase  in  egg  production,  all 
increase  together,  —  a  good  hint  for  the  feeder.  All  fowls 
in  the  experiment  "  consumed  a  larger  quantity  of  food 
and  increased  in  weigJit  before  beginning  egg  production" 

It  has  long  been  a  belief  among  poultrymen  that  a  hen 
would  molt  later  with  each  year  of  age.  The  Cornell 
experiment  did  not  prove  this,  but  showed  that  the  old 


Specimens  of  Down. 


That  Above,  Old  and  Frayed  with  Wear. 
Barbules 


Note  the 


400  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

hens  took  more  time  for  the  molt,  one-,  two-,  and  three- 
year-olds  using  an  average  of  eighty-two,  one  hundred 
one,  and  about  one  hundred  four  days,  respectively. 
Various  expert  breeders  testify  that  age,  prolificacy, 
season,  and  individual  variations  all  affect  the  length  of 
time  required. 

In  this  experiment,  two  pens  of  trap-nested  hens  laid 
an  average  of  but  twelve  eggs  each  during  the  molt,  and 
only  three  per  cent  of  the  hens  laid  while  molting  most 
freely.  Let  no  one  berate  the  hen  for  not  laying  during 
the  molt,  till  he  has  fully  considered  that  the  new  coat  of 
feathers,  to  be  put  on  at  least  once  a  year  as  long  as  she 
lives,  contains  (estimated)  one  tenth  as  much  nitrogen 
as  her  egg  product  for  the  whole  year,  and  one  fifth  as 
much  as  her  body.  If  increase  in  egg  production  and 
increase  in  weight  both  demand  increase  in  food,  the 
inference  is  unescapable,  from  all  the  facts,  that  to  lay 
during  the  molt,  the  birds  must  have  large  supplies  of 
food,  which  is  both  easily  digestible,  and  richer  than 
usual  in  nitrogen.  Since  feathers  contain  above  fourteen 
per  cent  of  nitrogen,  while  the  body  contains  less  than 
one  fourth  as  much,  and  the  egg  only  about  one  eighth 
as  much,  as  stated  in  some  analyses,  it  takes  but  short 
thinking  to  reach  the  conclusion,  not  only  that  extra 
nitrogen  should  be  added  to  the  feed  during  the  molt, 
but  that  even  with  this,  hens  should  not  be  expected  to 
lay  heavily  at  this  time.  And,  since  eggs  appear  to 
average  about  ten  times  as  much  lime  content  as  the 
body  of  the  fowl,  the  contention  of  some  of  the  food 
manufacturers  that  certain  mineral  constituents  render 
their  product  superior  for  laying  hens  "  appears  "  to  be 
supported.  The  valuation  of  domestic  fowls  rests  on 


FEATHERS  AND  THE  MOLT  401 

their  weight,  their  product  in  eggs,  their  conformation 
(largely  determined  by  the  sight  of  the  plumage),  their 
coloring,  and  their  worth  as  pets.  But  the  greatest 


Sharply  Laced  Feathers,  Silver  Wyandotte,  Required  by  Standard 

additions  to  cash  value  are  due  to  the  bird  being  feathered 
to  Standard  requirements  for  her  variety.  "  Fuss  and 
feathers,"  from  the  fancy  point  of  view,  have  far  greater 
value  in  dollars  than  any  other  attributes.  The  "fuss" 
belongs  to  the  fancier,  the  "  feathers  "  to  the  fowl. 


2D 


XXXII 

THE    QUESTION    OF   SUPPLIES 

Many  Questions  about  Supplies  —  Cornell  Manufactures 
Some  Specialties  —  Stock  of  a  Big  Supply  House  — 
Supplies  Valuable  to  Many — The  Supply  Habit  — 
Seasonal  Trade  Means  Early  Orders  —  Descriptions 
of  Various  Supplies  —  Testing  Eggs  —  A  Home-made 
Tester  —  Mortar  and  Pestle 

SINCE  it  has  more  than  once  been  my  lot  to  answer 
letters  asking  how  to  mark  chicks  for  identification,  how 
to  test  eggs,  where  to  get  portable  houses,  etc.,  I  feel  full 
warrant  for  giving  some  detail  about  poultry  supplies. 
A  large  part  of  the  work  of  Cornell  Experiment  Station 
in  giving  direct  aid  to  poultry  farmers  consists  in  making 
them  acquainted  with  the  best  poultry  supplies.  Many 
such  have  been  devised  by  the  Cornell  workers  and  are 
described  in  bulletins.  Some  of  these  may  be  duplicated 
by  any  handy  man,  and  dimensions  are  given  in  order 
to  facilitate  this. 

It  would  be  a  great  thing  for  poultry  farming  in  New 
York  State  if  all  the  farmers  and  poulterers  could  appre- 
hend the  eagerness  with  which  Cornell  works  to  get  into 
touch  with  them.  It  may  be  expected  that  the  advertis- 
ing and  the  increased  facilities  which  the  1910  legislative 
grant  of  ninety  thousand  dollars  to  strengthen  poultry 
work  at  Cornell  for  the  farm  benefit  will  give,  will  aid 
greatly  in  bringing  Cornell  and  its  poultry  farming  con- 
tingent together.  The  Farmers'  Week,  now  an  estab- 
lished function,  has  its  very  liberal  and  full  share  of 

402 


THE   QUESTION  OF  SUPPLIES  403 

poultry  work,  and  Cornell's  aim  is  no  less  than  to  train 
leaders  who  will  aid  in  the  uplift  work  all  along  the 
line.  Incidentally,  they  will  be  a  link  between  the 
University  and  the  farms.  This  will  be  touched  upon 
again  in  another  chapter. 

Special  models  put  forth  by  Cornell  Experiment 
Station  include  fresh-air  and  winter  houses,  coops, 
shipping  boxes,  rat-proof  feed  hoppers,  etc.  Pho- 
tographs of  all  helpful  Cornell  appliances  appear  in 
the  bulletins,  and  clear  descriptions  accompany  these. 
Duplicates  of  the  pictures  are  sold  for  a  nominal  price ; 
they  may  be  used  in  other  publications,  due  credit  being 
given. 

The  development  of  the  modern  poultry  supply  house 
is  one  of  the  accompanying  wonders  of  the  amazing 
enlargement  of  the  poultry  industry.  It  is  the  Be- 
ginner who  pays  for  far  the  greater  part  of  these  varied 
offerings.  The  stock  of  such  a  house  comprises,  in 
some  cases,  about  all  the  legitimate  poultry  books 
published;  in  others,  a  supply  of  the  cheaper  ones 
in  each  division  (breeds,  houses,  squabs,  eggs,  cavies, 
profits,  specialties,  etc.)  —  perhaps  described  as  "a 
large  portion  of  the  most  popular  poultry  books." 
One  such  list  before  me  contains  not  even  one  of  the 
newer  and  better  books. 

Aside  from  books,  the  supplies  cover  incubators, 
brooders,  and  fixtures,  portable  houses  and  weaning 
coops,  patent  roofings  and  building  papers,  specially 
manufactured  feeders,  foods,  mills,  and  cutters  for  vari- 
ous purposes  ;  shipping  boxes  and  coops,  poultry  exer- 
cisers, fountains,  sieves  and  screens,  spraying  machines, 
nests  and  nest  eggs,  disinfectants,  song  bird  supplies, 


404 


THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


lice  killers,  wire  nettings  and  staples,  medicines,  etc., 
besides  mineral  paints  and  numerous  small  handy  sup- 
plies. Such  are  the  foot-punch  marker  for  distinguish- 
ing chicks,  numbered  leg  bands  in  large  variety,  egg 


Automatic  Feeder.     Used  at  Connecticut  Agricultural  College 

testers,  the  pinfeather  picker,  and  the  poultry  gun. 
Sometimes  general  garden  and  small  farm  tools  are 
added.  In  short,  the  aim  is  to  keep  everything  the 
town  poultryman  and  Pet  Stock  Lover,  and  the  Be- 
ginner are  likely  to  want. 


THE   QUESTION  OF  SUPPLIES  405 

Stock  and  eggs  are  usually  supplied,  also ;  sometimes 
these  are  kept  in  stock ;  oftener,  they  are  bought  of 
near-by  breeders  who  are  considered  reliable  and  whose 
stock  is  known  to  be  good. 

It  almost  goes  without  saying  that  a  big  trade  in 
medicines  is  handled  by  most  of  these  stores.  The 
drugs  are  very  likely  to  be  the  same  as  are  in  common 
household  use,  but  at  an  advanced  price.  One  may 
use  household  remedies  for  fowl  diseases,  the  usual 
dose  for  a  grown  fowl  being  about  one  half  as  much 
as  for  a  person,  and  many  of  the  supplies  may  be  fairly 
well  duplicated  by  home-made  articles.  But  the  man 
who  raises  poultry  "  before  and  after  dark,"  as  many 
a  business  man  must,  if  his  wife  and  children  are  not 
interested,  has  no  stomach  for  such  work.  It  is  in- 
finitely better  for  him  to  buy  the  poultry  supplies, 
which,  except  in  the  case  of  medicines,  are  usually 
quite  fair  in  price. 

The  "  supply  habit,"  however,  is  one  against  which 
many  Beginners  need  to  be  warned  ;  as  the  purchase 
of  too  many  of  these  conveniences  may  devour  all 
the  profits  of  the  venture.  But  I  hold  that  the  business 
man  who  raises  poultry  for  itself  and  who  desires  to 
supply  fresh  eggs  and  poultry  meat  for  his  table  does 
not  need  to  make  a  real  profit,  other  than  the  "profit" 
in  having  these  things.  If  his  household  supplies 
balance  the  expenses  in  value,  the  venture  is  a  paying 
one  for  him,  even  though  no  extra  dollars  go  into  his 
pocket. 

There  are  many  supplies,  especially  of  the  larger 
sort,  which  may  be  had  in  several  styles,  so  that  the 
buyer  has  very  good  choice.  Some  models  are  much 


406 


THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


better  than  others.  In  the  case  of  incubators  and 
brooders,  it  is  generally  common  for  a  supply  house 
to  "  take  up  "  one  make  only,  usually  one  of  the  best, 
according  to  popular  consent. 


.UIUIII 

*••••»       . 


A  Patented  Feed  Trough.     No  Place  for  Fowls  to  Roost  on  This 

The  one  point  which  the  Beginner  who  must  have  his 
stuff  shipped  from  the  supply  houses  needs  to  note, 
especially,  is  that  the  exigencies  of  the  supply  business 
are  many,  and  the  houses  are  often  behind  on  their 
orders  for  the  most  popular  goods.  Much  of  the  trade 
is  seasonal,  and  all  customers  want  the  goods  at  nearly 
the  same  period.  This  means  that  if  you  want  the  stuff 
when  you  want  it, —  and  some  people  are  made  that 
way!  —  you  need  to  order  well  in  advance.  For  in- 
cubators and  brooders,  two  or  three  months  ahead  is 
pretty  safe  —  less  time  may  or  may  not  be.  In  March 
of  a  certain  year,  I  heard  from  behind  the  scenes  of  a 
big  New  York  supply  house  that  even  the  manager's 


THE  QUESTION  OF  SUPPLIES  407 

letters  were  being  ignored  by  the  main  office  in  another 
city.  "  Probably  behind  on  their  orders  for  machines 
and  giving  every  ounce  of  strength  to  them  "  was  the 
New  York  manager's  explanation  of  the  unpleasant 
facts. 

Incubator  thermometers  and  hygrometers  have  been 
the  subjects  of  much  wear  and  tear  of  gray  matter  on 
the  part  of  manufacturers.  One  manufacturer,  who 
believes  himself  singularly  immune  from  the  error  germ, 
avers  that  none  of  the  (other)  hygrometers  made  for  in- 
cubators have  much  value.  One  of  the  newer  makes 
of  incubator  thermometers  has  the  mercury  bulb  set  in 
the  middle  of  a  celluloid  egg,  where  it  is  guaranteed  to 
give  the  exact  temperature  at  the  center  of  the  real 
eggs,  in  any  make  of  incubator,  and  no  matter  what 
the  method  of  heating :  by  diffusion,  radiation,  or  what 
not. 

The  supply  houses  talk  a  bit  about  many  defective 
regulators  on  machines.  I  have  not  found  trouble  of 
this  sort,  in  using  four  different  makes.  I  am  inclined  to 
think  such  difficulty  may 'come  from  carelessness,  where 
the  regulator  is  on  the  top  of  the  machine.  It  might 
possibly  come,  in  certain  machines,  through  gross  over- 
heating of  the  machine. 

An  egg  cabinet  and  turner  supplied  with  a  wire 
pocket  for  each  egg,  and  holding,  as  to  size,  from 
fifteen  dozen  to  eighty-four  dozen  is  a  very  handy 
appliance.  The  eggs  can  be  rotated  at  will  through 
a  one-half  turn  of  the  swinging  body  portion. 

There  are  cheap  egg  testers,  usually  at  twenty-five 
cents  in  the  stores  or  thirty-five  cents  by  mail.  An 
electric  tester  is  also  offered.  It  is  said  to  give  a  much 


THE   QUESTION  OF   SUPPLIES  409 

stronger  light  than  a  lamp  tester,  and  costs  perhaps  five 
dollars.  All  the  testers  I  have  seen  work  fairly  well ; 
which  really  means  little  more  than  that  they  give  light 
enough  for  the  work.  A  home-made  tester  can  be  made 
that  will  do  practical  work.  A  hollow  tube  through  which 
one  looks  toward  the  light,  the  eggs  being  held  singly 
against  the  end  farthest  from  the  eye,  answers  the  pur- 
pose of  many.  Better,  is  a  cylinder  of  tin  or  tough, 
elastic  pasteboard,  large  enough  to  set  over  a  lamp  car- 
rying a  Rochester  or  similar  burner. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  supplies  is  the  rotating 
cylinder  hung  in  a  frame,  and  known  as  "  the  lice-killing 
machine."  I  used  one  of  these  for  some  years  and 
found  it  to  do  its  work  well.  The  chief  objection  to  it 
was  that  it  frightened  the  chicks  sadly ;  but  this  can 
be  partly  obviated  by  turning  the  cylinder  very  slowly. 
The  chicks  are  placed,  together  with  a  safe  lice  powder, 
in  the  cylinder,  which  is  then  turned  by  a  crank,  just  as 
you  would  turn  a  corn  sheller  handle.  It  is  easy  to  see 
that  the  chicks  may  be  far  more  thoroughly  cleaned  in 
this  machine  than  by  hand,  even  though  one  tried  to  be 
very  thorough  indeed  with  the  latter  method.  Tobacco 
makes  the  chicks'  eyes  smart,  but  I  think  insect  powder 
is  not  so  much  open  to  objection.  The  machines  are 
made  in  several  sizes ;  when  using  the  chick  size,  a 
goodly  brood  can  be  put  in  at  once. 

The  foot  punches  and  leg  bands  make  distinction  of 
special  birds  so  easy  that  no  one  who  raises  poultry  in 
any  numbers  should  be  without  them.  They  are  an 
almost  necessary  adjunct  to  the  trap  nest,  which  is  of 
little  value  unless  the  fowls  can  be  distinguished,  each 
from  the  other. 


410  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

Every  one  who  has  farm  antecedents  or  who  is  situ- 
ated on  the  farm,  will  doubtless  be  glad  to  learn  that 
there  is  a  cast-iron  mortar  with  concrete  pestle,  designed 
for  crushing  crockery,  brittle  bones,  etc.,  —  I  saw 
this  priced  at  three  dollars ;  the  size,  as  given,  was  nine 
inches  square  on  the  floor  and  a  foot  deep,  the  pestle 
handle  being  four  feet  long,  so  that  the  user  could  stand 
while  working. 

A  wire  stretcher,  with  steel  grips,  is  another  of  the 
handy  tools  which  the  poultryman,  who  has  much  wire 
fencing  to  put  up,  can  scarcely  afford  to  be  without. 
There  is  also  a  special  kind  of  pliers  for  staple 
pulling. 


XXXIII 


EFFICIENCY   THE   KEY   TO    SUCCESS 

What  Ought  To  Be  and  What  Is  —  A  Lesson  from  Life  — 
Locating  Inefficiency — Reform  —  Applying  Efficiency 
Principles  —  Revolution  through  Efficiency  Methods  — 
Three  Selected  Efficiency  Principles — Oversight  a  Vital 
Point  —  Tabulation  for  Efficiency  in  Poultry  Work. 

IT  has  been  said  again  and  again  in  our  public  prints 
that  most  business  enterprises  fail.  The  men  who 
figure  have  put  the  per  cent  of  successes  as  one  out  of 
20.  Doubtless,  the  failures  in  poultry  keeping  do  not 
count  as  high  as  this ;  yet  poultry  keeping  is  commonly 
considered  unusually  risky.  Some  business  folk  who 
profess  to  be  especially  well  informed  in  this  matter 
affirm  that  the  "  efficiency  of  capital  investment  in  in- 
dustrial plants "  is  seldom  found  to  be  above  30  per 
cent.  That  is,  calling  what  ought  to  be  as  100,  what  actu- 
ally is,  in  the  working  of  the  plants,  must  be  called  thirty. 
Putting  poultry  keeping  as  a  commerial  venture  on  the 
same  plane,  the  figures  which  you  work  out  so  labori- 
ously as  what  ought  to  be,  will  dwindle,  in  the  actual 
handling  of  the  business,  to  less  than  one  third ;  your 
profits  will  be  one  third  of  what  you  figured  them ! 
This  —  just  this — is  the  weak  point ;  this  is  the  crucial 
reason  for  so  many  failures.  And  still  you  ask,  "  Why  ?  " 
The  firms  which  now  sell  efficiency,  as  one  may  say, 
assert  that  it  is  because  of  waste  —  of  energy,  of  time,  of 
nerve  force,  of  money. 

411 


412 


THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


'  An  illustration  from  the  life  of  to-day  will  show  ex- 
actly what  is  meant.  Not  far  from  my  home,  a  large 
contract  job  is  being  done.  A  public  building  is  being 
moved,  and  a  larger  main  part  put  up  adjoining.  I 

have  heard  contract 
building  or  contract 
jobs  in  general  re- 
ferred to  as  "the 
biggest  gamble  in 
business  life."  In 
this  specific  contract 
work,  the  roof  was 
removed  from  this 
large  building  of 
which  I  speak,  the 
shingles  being  de- 
posited in  a  heap 
near  by.  The  lot 
is  rather  small  for 
the  proposed  build 
ing,  which  may  be  a 
part  of  the  reason 
for  the  way  things 
work  out.  What- 
ever the  reasons,  the 
fact  is  that  the  heap  of  shingles  has  already  been  moved 
three  times,- and  is  now  so  located  that  it  must  inevitably 
be  handled  at  least  once  more.  Somebody,  then,  pays 
for  four  handlings,  when  one  would  be  sufficient  under 
proper  management.  Inefficiency,  here,  traces  directly 
to  the  man  in  charge.  If  you  will  study  different  cases, 
will  you  not  find  that  inefficiency  always  traces  to  some 
man  or  men  back  of  the  work  f 


Peat 


Planting  Efficiency  :  Good  Poultry  Feeds,  and 
Nitrogen  Gatherers.  The  Root  Nodules  Fix 
the  Nitrogen 


EFFICIENCY  THE   KEY  TO  SUCCESS  413 

I  have  in  possession  the  booklet  of  a  firm  of  "  Busi- 
ness Tinkers  "  located  in  New  York  City  whose  entire 
work  is  to  study  the  business  of  any  firm  which  may  en- 
gage them,  and  figure  out  where  the  inefficiency  is,  and 
what  is  required  to  change  from  inefficiency  to  efficiency. 
In  some  cases,  this  means  only  from  small  profits  to  large 
ones ;  in  others,  it  means  a  change  from  losses  to  good 
profits.  And  I  heard  a  representative  of  this  firm  say 
that  their  work  was  equally  forceful  and  effective  in  all 
lines  of  business :  factories,  stores,  stock-keeping,  rail- 
roading, and  what  not.  This  is  because  it  is  founded  on 
principles. 

It  is  because  principles  are  underlying  things  and  can 
be  applied  by  any  one  who  understands  them  and  will 
go  at  it  systematically,  that  I  am  putting  this  most  mod- 
ern of  business  advances  into  this  book  for  Beginners 
in  poultry  keeping.  One  who  is  systematic  and  keen 
and  honest  with  himself  can  apply  these  principles  to  his 
own  business  as  certainly  as  can  the  expert.  But,  his 
eye  is  not  so  well  trained,  his  experience  is  less,  and  he 
will  be  tempted  to  give  himself  the  benefit  of  the  doubt. 
For  these  reasons,  it  is  far  better  to  try  to  apply  these 
principles  before  beginning  instead  of  after  having  made 
the  blunders  of  inefficiency ;  not  to  mention  the  saving 
in  money  and  in  wear  and  tear. 

The  Efficiency  Experts,  in  their  booklet,  apply  their 
principles  to  a  case  in  which  a  man  intends  to  go  into 
honey  producing  as  a  business.  By  questioning  him, 
they  find  out: 

1.  That  he  expects  to  secure  25  pounds  of  honey  a  year 
per  colony ; 

2.  That  he  thinks  of  settling  on  the  seashore,  where 
he  has  relatives ; 


414 


THE   BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 


Principles  are  Underlying:  Nodules  of  Velvet  Bean.     A  Nitrogen  Gatherer 
which  Prepares  the  Ground  for  Other  Legumes 


EFFICIENCY  THE  KEY  TO  SUCCESS  415 

3.  That  he  does  not  know  the  life  habits  of  bees ; 

4.  That  he  will  not  employ  skilled  help  ; 

5.  That  he  does  not  intend  to  subscribe  to  bee  peri- 
odicals, or  call  upon  other  helpful  agencies ; 

6.  That  he  has  not  studied  "  the  spirit  of  the  hive  "  ; 

7.  That  he  will  not  use  Italian  queens,  nor  watch  out 
for  feed  and  for  their  enemies,  but  expects  only  to  sell 
honey,  while  the  bees  take  care  of  themselves ; 

8.  That  he  plans  only  to  keep  records  of  the  weather  ; 
not  of  the  bees,  their  needs,  products,  etc. 

Though  possibly  this  case  is  exaggerated,  as  an  ex- 
ample, I  think  it  is  not  worse  than  the  vague  state  of 
mind  of  many  of  those  who  would  like  to  go  into  poultry 
as  a  money-making  opening.  The  above  system  always 
includes  a  schedule,  first,  of  the  efficiency  of  the  business 
plans,  or  the  actual  working  of  a  business  as  the  Experts 
find  it  in  operation.  In  such  a  schedule,  they  mark  this 
bee  man  ten,  twenty,  thirty,  and,  in  xone  case,  fifty  per 
cent  lacking,  according  to  his  answers  to  the  questions. 
On  one  number  they  mark  him  below  zero.  This  was 
the  "  fair  deal  "for  the  bees.  He  gets  about  a  fourteen  per 
cent  rating  as  to  efficiency,  and  the  expert  comment  is 
that  the  intending  investor  is,  on  his  own  testimony, 
foredoomed  to  failure. 

Much  has  been  said  about  the  "fussiness"  of  women, 
especially  when  they  try  to  do  serious  things.  But  no 
woman,  at  her  fussiest,  was  ever  so  fussy  as  these  busi- 
ness experts  of  the  trousered  sex.  In  a  large  company, 
I  heard  one  of  them  tell  how  he  would  go  to  work  to 
add  efficiency  to  the  kitchen  end  of  the  home.  He  in- 
stanced a  kitchen,  having  the  stove  on  one  side  the 
room,  the  table  on  another,  a  closet  for  the  kitchen 


416 


THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 


implements  some  feet  distant  from  the  table,  etc.,  and 
with  the  table  too  low,  so  that  a  strain  was  constantly  on 
the  back  of  the  worker.  He  showed  how  the  housewife, 
working  in  this  illy  arranged  "  shop,"  would  walk  seven 
feet  and  back,  from  six  to  a  dozen  times,  merely  in  as- 
sembling her  baking  materials  and  tools.  He  referred 


"  Graded ;'  Corn,  The  Staple  Poultry   Feed,  as  Grown  and  Shown  by  Mid- 
West  Boys.     Getting  in  Line  for  Efficiency 

to  the  lost-  motions  in  not  reducing  bread  making  to  a 
system  of  movements  always  performed  in  the  same 
way  and  in  the  same  order.  In  applying  the  system  to 
her  needs,  on  two  or  three  different  days  the  expert 
would  watch  this  worker,  record  her  movements  and  her 
steps,  tabulate  all,  and  work  out  a  plan  to  cut  out  possi- 


EFFICIENCY  THE  KEY  TO  SUCCESS  417 

bly  75  per  cent  of  the  useless  motions  and  steps.  I 
heard  a  college  woman  say,  afterward,  that  her  house- 
work would  be  revolutionized  from  that  day  forth  because 
of  this  fifteen-minute  talk.  Another  said  that  one  house 
in  which  she  lived  had  at  least  25  feet  of  distance  between 
the  flour  bin  and  the  molding  table,  and  another  had 
the  width  of  three  rooms  between  the  kitchen  stove  and 
the  molding  board  built  in  at  the  farther  end  of  the  long 
pantry.  Nothing  could  more  clearly  show  the  need  for 
women  as  kitchen  architects  or  the  mission  of  the  kitchen 
cabinet.  The  Expert  who  gave  the  address  urged  that 
women  apply  the  principles  of  the  work  which  his  firm  was 
doing  to  the  details  of  their  daily  work,  for  themselves. 

Whether  the  underlying  principles  are  few  or  many, 
depends  somewhat  on  how  they  are  stated.  The  firm 
of  which  I  speak  names  twelve,  and  states,  in  addition, 
that  some  would  condense  them  all  into  the  single  word, 
"  common  sense."  The  three  which  I  wish  to  bring  es- 
pecially to  your  notice  are  the  necessity  for  records  of 
what  is  actually  being  done,  the  necessity  of  "  a  fair  deal," 
and  the  necessity  of  what  is  called  an  "  efficiency  reward." 
The  records,  it  is  demanded,  must  be  "  reliable,  immedi- 
ate, and  accurate  " ;  the  fair  deal  applies  to  the  under 
workers  chiefly ;  the  efficiency  rewards  are  a  premium 
paid  to  the  employee  for  doing  "  Standardized  work." 
The  form  is  not  so  essential  as  the  fact,  since  without 
hope  of  reward  "even  the  best  weary  in  well-doing." 

Employers  here  and  there  have  had  visions  of  effi- 
ciency, before  the  rise  of  modern  firms  of  efficiency  ex- 
perts, and  have  managed  their  own  business  by  these 
principles,  perhaps  before  they  were  ever  tabulated. 
We  may  well  wonder  whether  the  successful  five  per  cent 

2£ 


4l8  THE   BEGINNER. IN  POULTRY 

were  not  principally  composed  of  these  !  Recently,  a  man 
died  in  Michigan,  who  had  made  his  name  familiar  to 
the  public  all  over  the  United  States  as  a  special  grower 
of  strawberry  plants.  He  stated  in  his  circular  that  one 
reason  why  his  business  was  reliable  and  successful 
was  that  his  employees  were  especially  trained.  Every 
worker  allowed  to  help  among  the  plants  was  trained 
as  soldiers  are  drilled,  viz.,  to  perform  all  motions  —  in 
setting  a  plant,  say  —  in  the  same  order  and  exactly  in  the 
same  way  and  perfectly.  One  cannot  help  seeing  how 
this  would  simplify  the  work  of  the  foreman,  who  would 
have  a  definite  standard  to  which  to  hold  the  workers. 

Many  of  the  things  which  have  been  said  in  other 
chapters  of  this  book  fall  directly  under  this  idea  of 
efficiency  in  work.  The  men  who  have  been  succeed- 
ing with  poultry  have  been  those  whose  nature  it  was 
to  be  efficient.  Webster  defines  efficiency  as  "the  qual- 
ity of  producing  effects."  Young  America  abbreviates 
it  to  "gets  there."  Another  way  of  expressing  it  is, 
"  the  ratio  of  product  to  energy  expended."  "  Energy," 
in  a.  business  sense,  meaning  time,  money,  work  —  all 
that  is  invested  in  aiming  to  get  an  expected  result. 

We  might  make  an  efficiency  tabulation  of  our  own 
for  poultry.  In  it  would  come  keen  oversight  as  a  lead- 
ing force.  The  smaller  the  items  of  a  business,  and  the 
smaller  the  output  of  each  individual  concerned,  the 
more  need-  for  oversight,  that  the  little  foxes  may  not 
"  spoil  the  vines."  Location,  and  saving  in  steps  in  the 
daily  routine,  would  be  important.  Saving  feed,  saving 
losses  in  young  stock,  saving  unnecessary  expenses  all 
around,  would  count  much.  A  fair  deal  to  the  birds 
would  be  a  main  necessity,  also.  Understanding  of  the 


Z 

UJ 

a 

u. 


EFFICIENCY  THE  KEY  TO  SUCCESS  421 

laws  of  life  for  fowls,  and  of  the  laws  of  business  in 
general,  would  both  be  necessities  to  efficiency.  Profits 
often  inhere  chiefly  in  the  savings  and  the  extra  incomes 
of  good  salesmanship.  First,  last,  and  all  the  time,  study 
of  life  in  general,  of  human  nature,  of  bird  nature,  of 
psychology,  etc.,  is  a  necessity.  A  natural  "  law  "  is  as 
unvarying  as  the  sun  in  its  course.  As  it  acts  once,  so 
it  acts  always.  On  such  laws,  a  poultryman  may  count ; 
for  they  are  stable.  Looking  these  points  over,  dare 
you  say  that  yon  will  be  an  efficiency  man  ?  An  effi- 
ciency woman,  as  a  poultry  keeper  ? 

I  have  been  greatly  interested  to  note  that  two  thirds 
of  the  points  which  these  Business  Tinkers  demand  tally 
exactly  with  the  divisions  of  the  work  which  I  have  out- 
lined for  the  Beginner.  Conditions,  planning,  records, 
common  sense,  the  "  fair  deal,"  which  depends  on  un- 
derstanding the  nature  of  the  birds,  the  "  competent 
counsel,"  which  consists  in  finding  out  what  you  do  not 
know  from  some  one  who  does,  —  all  these  appear  in  the 
expert  plan  for  "  Business  Efficiency." 

Tabulating  the  efficiency  points  noted,  as  applied  to 
poultry,  we  might  have  something  like  this  :  — 

Location  arid  Plan. —  Saving  in  steps,  in  feed,  in  chicks: 

Oversight.  —  Of  workers,  or  of  Stock. 

A  Square  Deal.  —  Including  comfort  and  working 
material,  for  worker  birds. 

Understanding  of  Laws.  —  Of  life  —  Of  business. 

Salesmanship.  —  Knowledge  of  men  —  Of  markets. 

Study.  —  Of  all  that  touches  life  or  business. 

Records.  —  For  efficiency  reference. 

Checking  Up.  —  Owner  and  employees  especially. 


XXXIV 

THE   BEGINNER'S   FOES  AND  HIS  FRIENDS 

Systems,  and  Gullibility  —  " A  Dollar  a  Sell"  — How 
Things  Hinge  Together  —  A  Basic  Fact  and  Geometri- 
cal Progression  —  False  Premises  Insure  False  Con- 
clusions —  One  Square  Foot  per  Bird  — "  Books  " 
which  are  not  Books  —  The  Weak  Spot  —  A  Safe 
Place  to  read  "  System "  Books  —  Conservation  of 
Common  Sense  —  Good  Germs  and  Bad  —  First  Aid 
to  the  Beginner  —  Good  luck  to  the  Beginner ! 

No  undefended  Beginner  who  comes  under  the  zone 
of  influence  of  any  poultry  or  farm  paper,  in  these  modern 
times,  is  safe  from  the  "  germ  "  which  riots  through  the 
systems  of  the  inoculated,  to  the  sure  end  that  they  in- 
vest in  one  or  several  "  System  "  books.  System  —  just 
plain  system  —  is  such  an  indubitably  good  thing,  such 
a  rock  foundation  of  a  successful  poultry  business,  that 
it  deserves  every  laudatory  adjective  in  the  average 
vocabulary.  But  "  Systems,"  in  the  specific,  modern 
poultry-world  sense,  are  in  the  most  nauseating  bad  odor 
with  all  but  the  gullible.  The  chief  openings  to  gulli- 
bility are  ignorance  and  curiosity.  These,  then,  the 
"  Systems  "  set  out  to  capture.  "  None  other  need 
apply  "  would  be  a  most  excellent  wording  of  their  atti- 
tude toward  the  world. 

Some  one  writing  in  an  agricultural  paper  sounds  the 
warning  thus  :  "  Be  careful  from  whom  you  buy.  Have 
nothing  to  do  with  those  whose  promises  are  obviously 
impossible.  If  a  man  advertises  that  his  flock  has 

422 


JHE   BEGINNER'S  FOES  AND   HIS  FRIENDS       423 

averaged  more  than  250  eggs  per  hen  yearly,  avoid  him. 
Speaking  of  a  certain  "  System,"  the  same  man  says  : 
"Any  man  possessing  a  grain  of  sense  knows  that  if 
this  person  had  a  '  System  '  by  which  he  could  make  the 


Plucking  the  Ostrich :  Plumes  are  Legitimately  Worth  Much  More  than  "  A 
Dollar  a  Sell " 


immense  profits  that  he  claimed  to  have  done,  he  would 
have  kept  it  to  himself  and  have  gone  right  on  clearing 
$50,000  from  every  acre  instead  of  selling  his  '  System  * 
at  a  dollar  a  Sell" 


424  THE   BEGINNER  IN   POULTRY 

"A  dollar, a  'sell'"  might  be  considered  a  complete 
commentary  on  the  whole  matter,  but  the  first  "  sell "  is 
not  the  end  of  the  "  System  " ;  for  it  usually  includes 
selling  to  the  novice  books,  supplies,  even  incubators  and 
brooders,  besides  the  book  which  was  the  original  enter- 
ing wedge. 

The  way  all  these  things  hinge  together  is  utterly  un- 
suspected, it  may  be,  by  the  Beginner.  For  instance, 
at  a  big  show,  I  saw  a  very  large  display  of  supplies  by 
a  firm  which  does  big  advertising.  That  is,  of  course, 
perfectly  legitimate.  I  had  noted,  with  great  surprise, 
as  I  passed  the  booth,  that  it  was  offering  a  certain 
book  which  ranks  among  "  Systems,"  as  far  and/away 
the  best  poultry  book  published.  Noting  the  firm  name, 
however,  I  saw  that  this  was  its  own  book.  I  have  this 
book  in  my  possession,  and  it  was  given  me  by  a  near 
Beginner,  who,  having  paid  his  good  money  for  it  and 
read  it  eagerly,  pronounced  it  absolutely  worthless.  I 
did  not  entirely  agree  with  him,  because  there  is  much 
really  good  workable  advice  to  the  uninitiated,  in  its 
pages.  But,  first  and  foremost,  it  was  an  advertising 
medium  for  the  stock,  etc.,  of  the  firm  putting  it  out. 
To  call  it  the  best  book  ever  offered  to  poultry  raisers 
was  an  insult  to  the  Beginner,  to  the  regular  writers  of 
genuine  poultry  books,  and  to  the  Colleges  which  put  out 
legitimate  literature  month  by  month. 

There  is  one  fact  which  every  Beginner  ought  to  think 
much  on,  if  he  wishes  to  save  himself  from  what  we 
have  come  to  call  "exploitation."  The  basic  truth 
underlying  a  large  number  of  the  systems  is  the  same, 
and  it  cannot  be  controverted.  This  is  why  it  is  possible 
for  them  to  state  without  absolute  falsehood  that  exor- 


THE   BEGINNER'S  FOES  AND   HIS  FRIENDS        425 

bitant  amounts  (judged  by  the  common  standard)  of 
money  can  be  made  in  a  back  yard  by  any  one  with  a 
few  hens.  "  Any  one  can  do  it,"  they  say  ;  and  no  one 
can  give  them  the  lie,  without  explaining  at  considerable 
length  just  what  he  means. 

The  basic  truth  referred  to  is,  that,  if  every  egg  which 
every  vigorous  hen  lays  is  incubated  and  the  resulting 
chicks  are  raised  and  turned  off  as  quickly  as  possible, 
or  the  females  turned  into  layers,  season  after  season, 
the  astounding  result  is  as  sure  as  any  other  tremendous 
growth  by  Geometrical  Progression. 

Take  just  one  "System"  statement  as  a  starter,  and 
see  how  easily  we  can  figure  a  competence:  "  All  well- 
cared-for  hens  should  lay  an  average  of  200  eggs  a 
year."  Fifteen  such  hens  will,  of  course  (since  figures 
do  not  lie),  lay  3000  eggs  ;  which,  if  turned  into  chicks 
and  raised  to  maturity,  must  give  the  worker  3000  fowls, 
worth  at  least  a  dollar  apiece,  when  they  are  of  the 
right  kind.  Here  is  your  $3000,  from  fifteen  hens,  in  a 
single  season  and  not  a  hair  turned  !  Every  inference 
is  incontrovertible  as  it  stands.  Haven't  you  proved  it 
by  arithmetic,  the  most  exact  science  known  to  man? 

But,  here  is  another  statement,  which  every  person 
living,  be  he  chicken  crank  or  just  ordinary  flesh  and 
blood,  ought  to  ponder ;  ought  to  ponder  till  it  becomes 
his  full  panoply  against  every  false  argument :  Any 
absurd  and  false  assertion  which  any  person  may  elect  to 
make  can  be  proved  (by  logical  argument)  if  the  premise 
upon  which  that  argument  is  based  is  untrue,  or  misleading. 

It  is  upon  the  false  premise  that  the  deceitful  "  System  " 
is  so  securely  based.  Very  many  of  them  are  based 
upon  the  assumed  premise  that  it  is  practicable  for  "  any 


426  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

one  "  to  hatch  all  the  eggs  from  any  specified  number 
of  hens,  and  raise  all  the  chicks  therefrom. 

How  are  you,  on  your  small  city  lot,  going  to  handle 
these  3000  birds,  assuming  that  you  hatch  and  raise 
them  ?  Have  you  capital  enough  for  the  feed  ?  For  the 
supplies  ?  It  will  take  hundreds  of  dollars.  Have  you 
time  enough  and  strength  enough  to  spare  for  all  this  work  ? 
Have  you  figured  that  3000  fowls  need  300x3  square  feet 
merely  to  stand  on;  while  your  lot,  if  it  be  25  feet  by  100 
feet,  one  fourth  occupied  by  a  (small)  house,  has  only  1 875 
square  feet  to  offer?  Or,  if  you  discount  the  laying  and 
the  hatching,  etc.,  till  you  have  only  1875  birds,  or  even 
sell  down  to  1000,  do  you  think  they  will  keep  in  health  in 
such  conditions,  even  though  you  strain  your  good  back- 
bone through  continual  spading  and  cleaning,  in  addition 
to  the  regular  work  of  feeding  and  watering  ?  Come,  now, 
do  you  really  desire  earnestly  to  spade  that  entire  city 
lot  of  yours,  every  day  of  your  life  ?  That  is  a  part  of 
the  requirements  of  the  "  System,"  and  if  you  don't 
follow  the  rules,  you  release  the  "  party  of  the  first  part " 
from  the  responsibility  for  your  failure. 

If  I  speak  feelingly  in  this  matter,  it  is  because  I  have 
on  my  desk  as  apart  of  the  day's  mail  a  series  of  questions 
from  a  man  in  the  largest  city  in  the  United  States, 
all  about  starting  into  back-yard  poultry  raising  as  a 
money-making  business.  He  tells  me  a  lot  of  facts  (?) 
about  several"  breeds,  which  betray  his  ignorance,  and  I 
see  his  finish  before  he  begins !  Upon  what  other  busi- 
ness would  a  sane  man  expect  to  enter,  when  every 
possible  condition  was  utterly  unfavorable?  And  in 
connection  with  what  other  would  he  part  with  his 
common  sense  before  entering  upon  it  ? 


THE  BEGINNER'S  FOES  AND   HIS  FRIENDS        427 

Even  many  so-called  "  books  "  which  do  not  offer  a 
"  System  "  are  more  and  more  a  snare  to  the  Beginner. 
Books  which  are  essentially  nothing  but  an  advertising 
circular  for  the  stock  of  their  writers  flood  the  market, 
and  are  offered  as  the  Beginner's  one  hope  at  75  cents 
and  one  dollar  a  copy  in  paper  covers.  The  best  way 
to  judge  the  probable  value  of  any  book  is  to  learn 
something  about  the  author  :  his  knowledge,  his  charac- 
ter, and  his  possession  of  the  teaching  faculty.  On  these 
three  points  rests  the  possible  value  of  informative  books 
of  every  sort.  Ninety  per  cent  of  the  books  offered  in 
some  fields  of  work,  if  not  in  all,  would  be  thrown  out 
as  not  good  enough,  if  subjected  to  the  above  test. 

But,  suppose  the  man  who  sees  both  sides  says: 
"  They  do,  however,  give  plenty  of  good  advice  to  any 
one  who  is  competent  to  pick  it  out."  (I  have  seen  this 
argument  used.) 

This,  I  think,  strikes  at  the  real  weak  spot  in  all  the 
Systems  :  they  have  so  much  of  "  buncombe,"  so  much 
exaggeration,  so  much  depreciation  of  all  other  methods, 
that  they  simply  make  pi  of  the  ideas  of  any  novice,  who 
is,  in  the  nature  of  things,  easily  confused.  Possibly  it 
is  true  that  some  give  more  information  for  the  money 
than  can  be  had  in  other  ways  for  the  same  money.  But 
their  defect  is  that  the  information  is  not  all  reliable. 
And  who  is  to  pick  out  the  good  from  the  other  kind  for 
the  puzzled  Beginner  ?  A  question  and  answer  book,  of 
which  there  are  several,  would  be  less  likely  to  do  him 
harm  ;  because  these,  at  least,  try  to  keep  within  the  ex- 
perience of  the  great  majority  of  poultrymen,  in  giving 
their  information. 

There  is,  perhaps,  one  place  where  a  novice  might 


428  THE  BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

revel  in  System  and  Secret  books,  and  come  off  scot- 
free  ;  this  is,  at  an  Experiment  Station  where  he  was 
taking  a  poultry  course.  Being  then  able  to  ask  ques- 
tions of  those  of  stable  mind  and  experienced  hands,  and 
to  discuss  every  questionable  statement  with  those  who 
were  interested  in  the  same  thing,  and  many  of  whom 
would  have  more  experience  than  himself,  he  would  find 
the  sawdust  pulled  out  of  practically  everything  that 
might  be  "  stuffed,"  and  the  real  inwardness  of  it  laid 
bare  to  an  inquiring  public.  And  just  this  is  the  treat- 
ment required  by  hundreds  of  schemes  that  spring  upon 
us  out  of  the  shady  paths  of  life,  from  cooperative  rub- 
ber plantations  and  gold  mines  and  cigar  stores  and 
whisky  stills  and  scores  more,  to  gold  mines  that  the 
faithful  hen  digs  out  of  the  lap  of  that  dear  Mother  Earth, 
who  feeds  all  her  creatures  with  something.  Let  us 
hope  none  of  us  may  bite  on  sawdust  or  tenpenny  nails 
when  we  have  supposed  ourselves  to  be  chewing  care- 
fully and  Fletcherly  on  "  nutriment." 

We  have  reached  the  point  where  a  large  part  of  the 
efforts  of  the  state  and  federal  governments  in  the 
Agriculture  Division  is  expended  in  trying  to  protect  the 
Beginner  and  the  farmer  from  those  who  would  fleece 
them.  Ignorance  makes  any  man  vulnerable,  and  good 
judgment  must  be  based  upon  knowledge  and  experience. 
Is  it  not  a  time  for  us  to  "  conserve  "  our  common  sense, 
to  increase  our  knowledge,  and,  if  we  cannot  protect  our- 
selves, at  least  to  flee  to  those  who  can  protect  us,  and 
not  into  the  open  arms  of  our  Exploiters  ? 

Every  Beginner  with  poultry  is  surrounded  by  a 
legion  of  invisible  "  influences,"  who  might  be  named, 
as  a  certain  Health  System  names  the  invisible  workers 


I 


430  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

within  the  body,  "  devs  "  and  "angs."  These  last  are 
the  germ  legions  ;  both  the  enemies,  and  the  armies  of 
"  good  germs "  which  repel  them.  Presumably,  the 
above-quoted  new-coined  terms  are  short  for  devils  and 
angels,  which  may  be  strong  meat  even  for  those  who 
would  like  to  characterize  fittingly  those  who  prey  upon 
the  Beginner,  and  to  separate  them  by  a  clear  line  of 
demarcation  from  those  who  would  help  him.  But  a 
term  sufficiently  strong,  yet  not  too  strong,  is  difficult  to 
find. 

The  Beginner  is  supported  and  braced  on  all  sides  by 
the  work  of  a  thousand  experienced  ones  who  have  gone 
before  him,  many  of  whom  are  in  the  state  Experiment 
Stations,  working  ever,  day  by  day  and  month  by  month, 
in  his  interest.  We,  the  people  of  the  States,  pay  them 
to  do  this,  and  they  do  it  with  right  good  will  thrown  in. 
There  is  also  a  goodly  group  of  writers  who  are  doing 
their  best  to  make  clear,  open  paths  in  which  all  may 
walk  toward  fullest  success.  The  Beginner  is  the  most 
important  person  in  the  poultry  business,  from  one 
point  of  view ;  because,  if  he  ceases,  the  business  will 
soon  come  to  an  end  by  natural  limitation  of  the  life  of 
man.  It  is  to  the  real  interest  of  every  honest  worker 
with  poultry  that  the  Beginner  shall  be  a  Success.  Let 
us  all,  then,  wish  him  good  luck  and  a  steady,  level  head  ! 
And  let  us  do  him  every  good  turn  possible. 


GLOSSARY  OF  BREEDER'S  SPECIAL 
TERMS 

Admitted:  accepted  by  the  American  Poultry  Association  as 
having  conformed  to  its  requirements,  and  placed  in  its 
Standard. 

American:  a  class  containing  certain  breeds  originating  in 
America  (all  general-purpose  birds). 

Beard :  a  tuft  of  feathers  on  throat  or  breast.  In  turkeys  a 
tuft  of  hairs  on  the  breast  of  males. 

Bird :  any  domestic  fowl. 

Brassy :  showing  yellowish  tinge  on  white  plumage. 

Breed :  a  distinct  group  of  fowls  which  perpetuates  its  own 
special  characteristics.  "Shape  makes  the  breed"  is  a 
common  fancier's  maxim.  Breeds  include  "  varieties." 

Brood :  any  lot  of  young  fowls  hatched  or  brooded  together. 

Carriage  :  the  attitude  of  a  bird,  in  standing  or  moving.  The 
way  of  holding  wings,  tail,  and  head  and  the  balance  of 
the  bird  help  to  make  up  carriage. 

Class :  in  the  "  Standard  "  sense,  a  group  comprising  certain 
breeds,  placed  together  because  of  origin,  likeness  in  some 
traits,  etc.  The  Standard  of  Perfection  groups  breeds 
into  fourteen  classes. 

Cock :  a  male  bird  one  year  old  or  older. 

Cockerel:  a  male  bird  not  yet  one  year  old. 

Colony  House :  A  detached  house,  carrying  only  a  few  birds, 
used  without  yards. 

Condition  :  the  state  of  the  fowl  as  to  (a)  health  ;  (b)  plump- 
ness ;  (r)  plumage. 

Conditioning :  giving  especial  care  to  put  into  the  best  condi- 
tion, especially  for  showing. 


432  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

Coverts :  half-long  feathers,  covering  others  and  filling  out  the 
form  in  various  sections  ;  as,  "  tail  coverts." 

Cultures :  fluids  in  which  germs  have  been  artificially  de- 
veloped, for  study,  or  other  specific  purposes. 

Disqualified:  judged  unworthy  to  compete  for  prizes,  because 
of  undue  defects. 

Ear  lobes :  somewhat  circular  areas  of  bare  skin,  red,  white, 
etc.,  below  the  ears  proper. 

Egg  duct:  the  soft  tube  in  which  the  egg  is  conveyed  from 
the  ovary,  toward  the  point  of  exclusion. 

Exclusion :  expulsion  from  the  egg  duct. 

Face :  the  bare  skin  about  the  eyes  of  a  fowl. 

Faking:  preparing  a  bird  for  exhibition  with  an  effort  to  de- 
ceive the  judges  as  to  its  real  quality.  (Example,  arti- 
ficial coloring  of  feathers.)  The  dividing  line  between 
"  grooming  "  and  faking  should  come  at  the  point  where 
improvements  in  appearance  deceive  as  to  the  breeding 
quality  of  the  specimen. 

Fancy,  The :  the  people  interested  in  breeding  and  exhibiting 
fancy  fowls. 

Flights :  the  outer,  long  quill  feathers  of  the  wing,  used  in  flying. 

Fluff:  short,  soft  feathers,  appearing  like  down,  on  the 
posterior  parts  of  any  fowl's  body. 

Gapes:  an  affection  of  the  windpipe  caused  by  threadlike 
worms,  which  choke  the  birds,  especially  the  young. 

Gosling:  the  young  of  the  goose  family. 

Hackle :  the  half-long  feathers  depending  from  the  head  and 
about  the  neck,  above  the  "cape,"  which  is  formed  by 
the  first  feathers  of  the  back. 

Hen :  a  female  bird  one  year  or  more  old. 

Knock-kneed:  having  crooked  legs,  approaching  each  other  at 
the  joint  at  upper  end  of  shank. 

Laced:  having  the  feathers  edged  with  a  contrasting  color. 

Mandibles :  the  upper  and  lower  parts  of  the  beak. 


GLOSSARY  OF  BREEDER'S   SPECIAL  TERMS        433 

Penciled :  marked  in  contrasting  lines,  often  concentric.      Said 

of  feathers. 

Pea  Comb :  triple  combs,  joined  into  one  at  the  base. 
Points :  arbitrary  values  given  to   various    parts  of  the  fancy 

fowl — TOO  points  indicating  perfection.     Each  class  has 

its  own  "  Scale  of  Points." 
Primaries  :  see  "  Flights." 
Pullet :  a  female  fowl  not  yet  one  year  old. 
Purple  Barring :  cross  lines  of  purple  sheen,  often  appearing 

on  black  where  full  greenish  sheen  is  demanded. 
Recognized ' :  acknowledged  as  a  Standard  breed. 
Rose  Comb :  a  low,  broad,  solid    comb,  usually  covered  with 

blunt  beaded  points. 
Roup :  a  contagious   disease  of  the   head  and  eyes,   akin  to 

diphtheria. 
Scale  of  Points :  an  arbitrary  allowance  of  the  number  of  points 

belonging  to  each  of  fifteen  sections. 
Scaly  leg :  an  affection  producing  roughness  of  the  legs,  from 

the  presence  of  mites  beneath  the  smooth  scales  of  the 

shank. 
Section :  a  division  of  the  body  of  a  bird,  especially  for  the 

purposes  of  judging  at  exhibitions.     Judges  are  instructed 

to   consider  carefully    every  section   of  any   bird   to    be 

judged.     They  "  must"  do  so. 
Shank :  that  section  of  the  leg  just  above  the  foot,   covered 

with  scales. 
Sickles :  the  pair  of  long  feathers  floating  above  the  true  or 

main  tail. 
Silver-laced:  Laced   with    silvery   white,   as    the    hackles    in 

Silver  Wyandottes. 
Spangled:  blotched  at  the  end  of  the  feather  with  contrasting 

color. 
Squirrel  Tail:  a  tail  carried  forward  of  the  line  perpendicular 

to  the  back  at  its  junction  with  tail. 
2  F 


434 


THE   BEGINNER   IN  POULTRY 


Standard  of  Perfection :  the  book  containing  the  authorized 
descriptions  of  all  recognized  breeds,  according  to  the 
American  Poultry  Association's  demands. 

Tom:  the  male  turkey. 

Variety :  a  division  of  a  breed,  usually  differentiated  by  color 
only. 

Wattles:  fleshy,  pendent  growths  from  the  throat,  near  the 
bill. 

Weaning  coop :  the  larger  coop  which  receives  a  brood  when 
weaned  from  the  hen,  or  brooder. 

Web :  the  flat,  plumy  surface  portion  of  the  feather,  with  barbs 
interlocked. 

Wing  Bar :  a  bar  of  contrasting  or  especially  brilliant  color 
extending  across  the  wing  made  by  markings  on  the  wing- 
covert  feathers. 

Wry  tail:  a  tail  turned  to  one  side  by  accidental  or  other 
deformity. 


ACTING    HEADS    OF   STATE   AGRI- 
CULTURAL  COLLEGES 

These  names  are  from  the  list  sent  me  by  the  Agricultural  Department  late 
in  1911,  upon  my  request  for  the  latest  available.  Some  of  these  officials 
are  Presidents,  some  Acting  Presidents,  some  Deans  of  their  several  col- 
leges, and  two  or  three  are  Principals.  But  a  letter  addressed  to  these 
names  will  bring  any  information  available  which  any  man  may  properly 
ask  from  his  own  state  workers.  In  special  instances  of  position  or  of 
need,  many  of  the  schools  will  also  send  to  inquirers  without  their  states. 

Alabama.  —  Auburn :    CHAS.    G.  THACH.       Normal :    W.    S. 

BUCHANAN.    Tuskegee  Institute  :  BOOKER  T.  WASHINGTON. 
Arizona.  —  Tucson  :  A.  E.  DOUGLASS. 
Arkansas.  —  Fayetteville  :  C.  F.  ADAMS. 
California.  —  Berkeley  :   E.  J.  WICKSON. 
Colorado.  —  Fort  Collins  :  CHAS.  A.  LORY. 
Connecticut.  —  Storrs  :  C.  L.  BEACH. 

Delaware.  —  Newark  :  GEO.  A.  HARTER.    Dover  :  W.  C.  JASON. 
Florida.  —  Gainesville  :  J.  J.  VERNON.     Tallahassee  :   NATHAN 

B.  YOUNG. 
Georgia.  —  Athens  :    ANDREW  M.    SOULE.     Savannah  :    R.    R. 

WRIGHT. 

Hawaii.  —  Honolulu  :  J.  W.  GILMORE. 
Idaho.  —  Moscow  :  W.  L.  CARLYLE. 
Illinois.  —  Urbana :  E.  DAVENPORT. 
Indiana.  —  La  Fayette  :  J.  H.  SKINNER. 
Iowa.  —  Ames:  E.  W.  STANTON. 
Kansas.  —  Manhattan  :   H.  J.  WATERS. 
Kentucky.  —  Lexington  :    M.    A.    SCOVELL.      Frankfort :  J.  S. 

HATHAWAY. 

435 


436  THE   BEGINNER  IN  POULTRY 

Louisiana.  —  Baton  Rouge  :  THOS.  D.  BOYD.     New  Orleans  : 

H.  A.  HILL. 

Maine.  —  Orono  :  R.  J.  ALEY. 
Maryland.  —  College  Park  :  R.  W.  SILVESTER.     Princess  Anne  : 

T.  H.  KIAH. 

Massachusetts.  —  Amherst :  KENYON  L.  BUTTERFIELD. 
Michigan.  —  East  Lansing  :  J.  L.  SNYDER. 
Minnesota.  — -University  Farm,  St.  Paul :  A.  F.  WOODS. 
Mississippi.  —  Agricultural   College  :    J.   C.   HARDY.      Alcorn  : 

L.  J.  ROWAN. 
Missouri.  —  Columbia  :    F.    B.    MUMFORD.       Jefferson    City  : 

B.  F.  ALLEN. 

Montana.  —  Bozeman  :  JAS.  M.  HAMILTON. 
Nebraska.  —  Lincoln  :  E.  A.  BURNETT. 
Nevada.  —  Reno  :  JOSEPH  E.  STUBBS. 
New  Hampshire.  —  Durham  :  WM.  D.  GIBBS. 
New  Jersey.  —  New  Brunswick  :  W.  H.  S.  DEMAREST. 
New  Mexico.  —  Agricultural  College  :  W.  E.  GARRISON. 
New  York.  —  Ithaca  :  L.  H.  BAILEY. 
North  Carolina.  —  West  Raleigh  :  D.  H.  HILL.     Greensboro  : 

JAS.  B.  DUDLEY. 

North  Dakota.  —  Agricultural  College  :  J.  H.  WORST. 
Ofc/0.— Columbus  :  H.  C.  PRICE. 
Oklahoma.  —  Stillwater  :    J.  H.  CONNELL.     Langston  :    INMAN 

E.  PAGE. 

Oregon.  —  Corvallis  :  W.  J.  KERR. 
Pennsylvania.  —  State  College  :  EDWIN  E.  SPARKS. 
Rhode  Island.  —  Kingston  :  HOWARD  EDWARDS. 
South  Carolina.  —  Clemson  College  :  W.  M.  RIGGS.     Orange- 
burg  :  THOS.  E.  MILLER. 
South  Dakota.  —  Brookings  :  R.  L.  SLAGLE. 
Tennessee.  —  Knoxville  :  BROWN  AYRES. 
Texas. — College  Station:   R.  T.  MILNER.     Prairieview  :  E.  L. 

BLACKSHEAR. 


HEADS  OF   STATE  AGRICULTURAL   COLLEGES     437 

Utah.  —  Logan  :  J.  A.  WIDTSOE. 

Vermont  —  Burlington  :  ELIAS  LYMAN. 

Virginia.  —  Blacksburg  :  P.  B.  BARRINGER.     Hampton  :  H.  B. 

FRISSELL. 

Washington.  —  Pullman  :  E.  A.  BRYAN. 
West  Virginia.  —  Morgantown  :  E.  D.  SANDERSON.     Institute  : 

BYRD  PRILLERMAN. 

Wisconsin.  —  Madison  :  H.  L.  RUSSELL. 
Wyoming.  —  Laramie  :  CHAS.  O.  MERICA. 


INDEX 


Abnormalities,  causes  for,  248. 
Accident,  lessening  chances  of,  42. 
Accuracy,  of  mind  and  method,  269. 
Aconite,  for  roupy  colds,  128. 
Action,  erratic,  in  fowls,  due  to  man,  7. 
Advance  in  poultry  interest,  283. 
Advertisements : 

classified,  369. 

kinds  of,  369. 

transient,  worthless,  369. 
Advertising : 

good  and  bad,  371,  372. 

manufacturers',  375,  377- 

methods,  242. 

worst  mistake  in,  374. 
Advice,  good,  picking  out,  427. 
Aid,  state,  Cornell,  402. 
Alfalfa: 

cheap  and  good,  229,  230. 

limits  ostrich  farming,  354. 

poisoned,  for  mice,  145. 
Amateurs,  made  to  sell  to,  37. 
Analyses,     Departmental,     tables    of, 

86. 
Ancestors : 

limiting,  187. 

of  fowls,  many,  181. 
Animals : 

controlling,  through  feed,  79. 

predaceous,  farmers'  debt  to,  144. 
Apparatus,  respiratory,  in  fowls,  118. 
Appeal  of  the  weak,  5. 
Apples,  results  from  feeding,  94. 
Appropriations,  State,  recent,  301. 
Argument,  false,  perfect  shield  against, 

.    425- 

Ash,  variation  in  samples  of,   94. 
Assistance,  government,  during  plagues, 
142,    145. 


Association,  American  Poultry : 

advance  work,  258. 

Auxiliary,  proposed  ladies',  264. 

rules,  254. 

Associations,  county,  New  Jersey,  276. 
Atavism,  187,  190. 
Average,  not  enough,  52. 
Averages,  protein,  87. 
Awards,  protest  against,  256. 
Ax,  the  best  medicine,  104. 


B 


Bacteria,  noxious  and  otherwise,  122. 

Barley  versus  oats  as  green  feed,  97. 

Barrels,  packing,  384. 

Basis  of  feeding,  76. 

Beans,  79. 

Beauty  transformed  to  ugliness,  182. 

Beet  pulp : 

combinations  with,  95. 

notably  good  feed,  95. 

soaking,  95.  -:'.*;.. 

Beets,  feeding  for  health,  95. 
Beginner : 

the,  bracing,  430. 

estimate  of,  unsafe,  190. 

has  three  chances,  179. 

influences  surrounding,  428. 

not  tested,  18. 

of  supreme  importance,  430. 

protecting  the,  428. 
Beginner's  promise  of  success,  208. 
Birds,  handling  small  lots  of,  96. 

three    thousand    on    1875    sq.    ft. 

426. 
Blackhead : 

in  turkeys,  126,  331,  332. 

symptoms  of,  331. 
Bloods,  mingling,  186. 
Blunder,  the  worst,  12. 


439 


440 


INDEX 


Books : 

a  snare,  426. 

judging  value  of,  426. 

poultry,  283. 

"System,"  where  safe,  284,  428. 
Bowel  trouble,   excess  profein  brings 

on,  84. 

Box,   orange,   too   thin   for   egg   ship- 
ments, 389. 

Brains,  where  worth  most,  38. 
Breakdowns  of  fowls,  how  many  ?   105. 
Breeders : 

Leghorn,  differ,  27. 

not  to  be  plucked,  396. 
Breeding : 

close,  1 88. 

in-and-in,  188. 

in  line,  187. 

line,  satisfactory,  196. 
Breeds : 

best  laying,  293. 

grouping,  2. 

miscellaneous,  23. 

outstanding,  25. 

popular,  non-Standard,  340,  341. 

to  let  alone,  26. 

white-egg,  250. 
Brevities,  197. 
Brooder : 

a  tight,  73. 

demands  personal  care,  64. 

fireless,  constructing,  70,  71. 

keep  heat  up  in,  68. 

the  best,  64. 

Broodies,  breaking  up,  170. 
Brooding : 

four  vital  points  in,  64. 

good,  difficult,  63. 

oversight  of,  48. 

successful,  227. 

what  is  it?  36. 
Bulletins : 

as  foundation  knowledge,  355. 

College,  277. 

poultry,  277,  283. 
Buying,  careful,  366. 


Cabinet,  for  sprouting  oats,  172. 
Cabinet,  egg,  revolving,  407. 


Capacity,  productive,  differs,  222. 
Carcasses,    must    be     dry    and    cool, 

386. 

Care,  advance,  60. 
Carve,  how  to  learn  to,  360. 
Cat,  family,  the  chicks'  worst  foe,  136. 
Cat  versus  rat,  138. 
Catalogues,  studying,  54. 
Cats,  neighborly,  135. 
Charcoal,  318. 

Charges  to  experience,  heavy,  114. 
Chick: 

average  initial  cost  of,  240. 

developing,  appearance  of,  in  egg,  48. 
Chickens : 

hatching  in  Egypt,  47. 

versus  pigs  or  sheep,  215. 
Chicks : 

baby,  shipping,  72. 

cost  of  production  of,  239. 

crowding,  112. 

day-old,  cost  of,  16. 

early  feed  for,  72. 

evenly  grouped,  66. 

free  range,  cheaper,  231. 

hen-hatched,  feeding,  74. 

in  cracker  boxes,  n. 

marking,  48. 

new  hatched,  beginning  with,  10. 

number  at  start,  n. 

older  trample  younger,  n. 

production  of  day-old,  14. 

should  be  of  same  age,  u. 

small,  watering,  49. 

transferring  to  brooder,  72. 
Claims,  committee  on,  262. 
Class,  key-point  of,  20. 
Classes : 

first  choices  in,  26. 

of  feed,  75. 

order  of  importance,  23. 

poultry,  women  in,  276. 

the  important,  23. 
Climate  and  laying,  294. 
Clovers,  value  of,  87. 
Clutches,  doubling  up,  40. 
Cockerels,  breeding,  selection  of,  106. 
Combinations,    cheap,    as    high-priced 

"egg  foods,"  125. 
Common  sense,  to  be  conserved,  428. 


INDEX 


441 


Common   sense,   parting  with,   426. 
Competence,     and     "System"     state- 
ments, 425. 

Competency,  of  counsel,  421. 
Competition : 

national,  at  Missouri  Station,  299. 

North  American,   299. 
Competitions,     Australian,     290-296 ; 

very  valuable,  232. 
Concrete,  proportions  for,  163. 
Condition : 

counts,  302. 

robust,  gives  resistant  power,  333. 
Confinement,  raising  breeders  in,  n. 
Contagion,  the  great  disease  spreader, 

1 06,  no. 
Contests,  laying,  adverse   criticism  of, 

289. 
Coop: 

brood,  general  construction  of,  174. 

weaning,  construction  of,  173. 

wire  netted,  172,  173. 
Coops : 

furnishing,  by  dealers,  392. 

too  small,  41,  172. 

weaning,  for  layers,  158. 
Cornell,   Seeking  touch   with   farmers, 

402. 

Cornell  winter  course,  270. 
Cost: 

increasing,  223. 

initial,  reducing,  240. 

of  production,  222. 

productive,  varies  widely,  224. 

purposed,  of  your  eggs,  237. 

varying,  per  dozen  eggs,  237. 
Cottonseed    meal,    safe    and    unsafe, 

88. 

Counsel,  the  chicks',  66. 
Courses,  poultry,  summary  of,  279. 
Creatures,  feelings  and  rights  of,  3. 
Crowding : 

evil  of,  202. 

fatal,  71,  72. 

land,  215. 

Cruelty  to  sitters,  170. 
Crusher,  for  crockery,  410. 
Culling,    weak-kneed,    source   of   loss, 

216. 
Cuts,  in  judging,  257. 


D 

Dampness : 

encourages  fungus,  60. 

fatal  effects  of,  149. 
Data,  full,  honest,  207. 
Defects,  balancing,  190. 
Defense  of  lower  creatures,  5. 
Deficits  from  town  flocks,  239. 
"Dehorning,"  by  Mendel's  law,  195. 
Detraction,  causes  of,  208,  209. 
Development   controlled  by   tempera- 
ture,  59. 
Diarrhoea,  white: 

"an  incubator  disease,"  129. 

avoiding,  52. 

cause  of,  73. 

dreaded  scourge,  13. 

experiment  with,  122. 

from  machines,  53. 

incipient  in  egg,  13. 

incredible  losses  from,  112. 

investigation  of,  in  Conn.,  112. 

preventive  treatment  for,  in. 

virulence  of,  122. 

Directions,  careful  following  of,  essen- 
tial, 1 20. 

Disadvantages,  adding  together,  36. 
Disease : 

in  poultry,  man  the  source  of,  103. 

of  bowels,  a  matter  of  temperature, 
130. 

problem,  the,  103. 

problem,  how  to  bury,  104. 
Diseases : 

from  incomplete  digestion,  no. 

how  induced,  126. 

poultry,  in  three  classes,  52. 

the  commonest,  125. 
Disinfectants: 

for  head  and  throat  troubles,  127. 

intestinal,  126. 

various  ways  of  usin^   no. 
Disinfection : 

internal,  doses  for,  126. 

of  common  sense,  65. 

to  ward  off  contagion,  no. 
Dissection : 

a  reliable  aid,  357. 

partial,  for  diagnosis,  362. 
Doctor,  startled  by  report,  119. 


442 


INDEX 


Dominance,  195. 
Doors,  ventilating,  sliding,  109. 
Drains,  to  prevent  seepage,  158. 
Duck,  Runner,  pen  averages,  200. 
Ducklings : 

first  needs  of,  318. 

Runner,  feathering,  318. 
Ducks: 

actual  averages,  316. 

easy  to  raise,  31?. 

"guaranteed"  output,  315. 

how  to  hatch,  317. 

Indian  Runner,  315,  320. 

Orpington,  Buff,  315. 

Pekin,  for  market,  313. 

plucking,  394. 

profit  from,  316. 

winning,  315. 
Dust: 

for  bath,  12. 

tobacco,  fifty  cents  a  box,  124. 

E 

Easiest  way  is  best,  98. 
,    Efficiency  :  changing  to,  413. 
principles  of,  417. 
schedule  of,  417. 
tabulation  for,  421. 
Egg,  cold-storage,  for  incubation,  55. 
cold-storage,  the,  55. 
comparative  hatching  value,  62. 
contents  of,  203. 
fertile,  a  living  animal,  60. 
»        the  ideal,  251. 

water  content  of,  94. 
Eggs: 

actual  variation  of,  245. 
Australian  test,  profit  on,  234. 
broken,  beware  of,  41. 
brown,  many  grades  of,  246. 
candling,  246. 

color,  prejudice  against,  245. 
cost :    for  average  producer,  238. 
for  New  York  city,  286- 
in  confinement,  229. 
of  production,  234. 
deterioration  of,  through  holding,  33, 

34- 

developing  in  body,  require  room,  248. 
dummy,  43. 


farm  prices  for,  234. 

fertility  of,  58. 

for  hatching,  too  old,  58. 

fully  graded,  253. 

goose,  need  moist  air,  325. 

goose,  sprinkling,  326. 

grades  of,  244,  247. 

group  producers  of,  265. 

hatching,  $150,  58. 

held  too  long,  10. 

high-priced,  may  chill,  58. 

how  many,  16. 

Leghorn,  creamy,  27. 

lime  content,  400. 

lowering  cost  of,  229. 

market  appearance,  size,  252. 

nest,  7. 

never  wash  for  shipment,  390 

normal,  grading,  250. 

of  good  size,  389. 

producer  candling,  246. 

producing,  cost  of,  227,  229. 

protein  brings,  84. 

quail,  hatching  in  machines,  348,  349. 

right  kind  for  hatching,  33. 

sales  table,  235,  236. 

selling  by  weight  unpopular,  392. 

simple,  efficient  grading  of,  252. 

supply  house  prices,  329. 

table,  advertising,  243. 

testing,  46. 

variations  most  trying,  247. 
Emphasis,    in    line    breeding,    where 

placed,  189. 

Employees,  training,  169. 
Enemies : 

mysterious,  113. 

new,  how  met,  332. 

of  poultryman,  35.?. 
Enthusiasm,  cleanliness  and  care  pro- 
tect, 133- 

Enthusiasms,  must  be  protected,   131. 
Errors,  affect  productiveness,  75. 
Essentials  in  brooding  outfit,  224,  225. 
Estimate  space,  manufacturers',  71. 
Evils,  eliminating,  353. 
Exceptions,  allow  no,  188. 
Exercise : 

for  animals,  value  of,  108. 

for  birds,  nature's  methods  of,  108. 


INDEX 


443 


Exercise : 

for  fowls,  how  to  encourage,  108. 

for  something,  232. 

in  brooder,  69. 

its  many  benefits,  178. 

patent  feeders  may  promote,  108. 
Expenses,  keeping  down,  218. 
Experience : 

expensive,  saving,  37. 

items  from,  135. 


F 

Facts,  two  vital,  94. 
Failure : 

assuring,  34. 

in  incubation,  reasons  for,  56. 
Failures,  beginners  furnish,  19. 
Faking,  defined  in  Standard,  256. 
Fanciers,  honest,  367. 
Fancy,  combining  with  utility,  181. 
Farmer,    poultrymen    dependent    on, 

119. 

Farmers,  goose,  326. 
Farming,  ostrich,  354. 
Farms : 

egg,  branch,  236. 

ostrich,  354. 

poultry   raising,    some   five   million, 

285. 

Fatalities,  cause  of,  202. 
Faults  of  brooders,  226. 
Feathers : 

and  egg  production,  397. 

deceptive,  182. 

decorate  birds,  397. 

for  fishing  tackle,  394. 

heavy,  reduce  laying,  397. 

ideal  coat  of,  397. 

Indian  Runner  Duck,  394. 

in  millinery,  394. 

marketing,  384. 

nitrogen  and  lime  content  of,  400. 

structure  of,  393. 

substitute,  394. 
Feed : 

changing,  75. 

cheap,  80. 

chick,  poor,  231= 


cooked,  78. 

egg-producing,  80. 

for  pigeons,  fouled  by  excreta,  143. 

green,    growing    for    fowls,    98 ;    in 
yards,  96. 

juicy,  imperative,  95. 

prepared,  advantages  of,  231. 

proportions  of,  proper,  85. 

Sanborn,  practice  and  estimate,  231. 

simple,  for  ducklings,  318. 

stuffs,  high-fiber,  87. 

vitality-producing,  231. 
Feeder : 

automatic,  home-made,  167. 

makeshift,  167. 
Feeding : 

excess,  84. 

fowls,  three  objects  thereof,  90. 

right,  75- 
Feeds: 

balancing,  85. 

changing,  84. 

cheap,-  substituting,  223. 

classifying,  84. 

combining,  82. 

commercial  animal,  81. 

foul,  lead  to  disease,  121. 

green,  liberal  supply  needed,  92. 

green,  tenderness  the  first  need,  101. 

high  protein,  table  of,  81. 

need  close  examination,  121. 

too  coarse,  87. 

vegetable,  79. 
Fencing : 

consumers  of,  307. 

life  of,  304. 

rapidity  of  rusting,  305. 
.    wire,  304. 
Figures  prove,  200. 
Flocks: 

farm,  feed  cost,  238. 

increasing  the,  9. 
Floor : 

cement,  cleanest,  165. 

constructing  and  covering,  165. 

dirt,  must  be  raised,  165. 
Follow-up,  311. 
Food,  materials,  table  of,  91. 
Forecast,  of  poultry  growth,  285. 
Foreknowledge  a  key,  113. 


444 


INDEX 


Foresight,  three  essentials  of,  41. 
Forethought,  necessity  of,  115. 
Foundation : 

cement,  164. 

cinder  and  concrete,  163. 
Fountains,     for    milk,     need     special 

cleansing,  122. 
Fowls,  domestic,  valuation  basis,  401. 

company  of,  fascinating,  33. 

draw  for  private  custom,  357. 

drawing,  358-360. 

health,  selection  for,  104. 

in  nature,  84. 

many,  managing,  202. 

occupation  and  recreation  for,  98. 

older,  molt  more  slowly,  400. 

on  range,  independent,  92. 

winter  sleeping  rooms  for,  157. 
Freighting  costly,  84. 
Friends,  of  poultryman,  352. 
Fruit,  wasting,  good  poultry  feed,  101. 
Fungi,  in  dusty,  musty  straws,  grains, 
117- 

G 

Game,  domestic,  338. 

Gapes,  practical  general  treatment,  1 1 1 . 

Geese : 

capacity,  averages,  cost  to  keep,  322. 

Embden,  328. 

forming  habits  of,  321. 

mating,  324. 

white  Chinese,  328. 
Germs,  good  and  evil,  430. 
Glass: 

radiates  heat,  163. 

too  much,  68. 
Goose : 

egg  product,  increasing,  326. 

incubating,  the,  326. 
Goslings : 

first  handling  of,  325. 

natural  feed  for,  325. 
Grain,  burying,  232. 
Grains,  buy  sound  only,  119. 
Ground,    foul,    sweeten    at    once    by 

spading,  122. 
Grouse : 

disappearing,  350. 

ruffed,  once  a  pest,  345.    '•   • 


Guide,  the  only,  375. 
Guinea,  Pearl,  338,  342. 

weight  of,  342. 
Guineas : 

as  game,  344. 

as  mothers,  343. 

demand  for,  343. 

social,  342. 

young,  in  New  York  market,  344. 


Habit,  the  supply,  405. 
Habits,  of  hens,  study,  44. 
Handling : 

care  in,  384. 

on  range,  10. 

simplifying,  390. 
Hatch,  machine,  successful,  54. 
Hatcheries,  central,  239. 
Hatches,  early,  39. 
Health: 

and  activity,  177. 

of  poultry,  waning,  112. 
Heat: 

glass  radiates,  163. 

in  brooder,  controlling,  69. 
Hen: 

idle,  maintaining,  203. 

record,  Oregon  College,  205. 

setting  the,  34. 

sitting,  the  fierce,  34. 

the  average,  228. 
Hens: 

better  than  pullets,  180. 

common,  cost,  14. 

do  not  average,  203. 

farm  average,  usual  income,  239. 

fighting,  good  mothers,  39. 

nervous,  not  good  sitters,  38. 

non-laying,  70. 

pure-bred,  cost  of,  16. 

starting  with,  14. 

three,  Cornell  record,  204. 

too  fat,  249. 

with  broods,  buying,  12. 
Hopper : 

Cornell  rat  proof,  170. 

feed,  compartment,  169. 
Hoppers,  rat  proof,  necessary,  140. 


INDEX 


445 


House : 

adapted  Tolman,  W.  Va.,  152. 

bill  of  materials  for,  155. 

"Clark,"  semi-monitor,  161. 

open  front,  147. 

permanent,  good  type  of,  163. 

poultry  satisfactory  type  of,  147. 

semi-monitor,  sunny,  163. 

shed,  remodeling,  161. 

shelter  for,  158. 

supply,  development  of,  403. 

the  cheapest  form,  161. 

warmer  than  shed  roof,  161. 

Warren  "model,"  159. 

wire  front,  164. 
Houses : 

fault  of  shed  roof,  156. 

muslin  front,  158. 

New  Jersey  Station,  163. 

piano  box,  174. 

portable,  147,  148.  150. 

poultry,  Bulletin  of,  152. 
Hover,  favorite  type  of,  65. 
Hovers,  satisfactory,  70. 
Hulls,  87. 

Hygrometer,  for  success,  61. 
Hygrometers,  407. 


Ideal,  for  egg  shape,  251. 
Ideas,  too  large,  207. 
Imprisonment,  for  life,  9. 
Inclosure,  movable,  173. 
Incubation : 

a  suspended  process,  60. 

first  requisite  for,  51. 

time  required  for,  45. 
Incubator : 

beginning  with,  18,  51. 

too  cheap,  don't  buy,  37. 

"will  bear  watching,"  130. 
Industries,  dovetailing,  351. 
Inefficiency : 

household,  416.  . 

lesson  in,  413. 

traces  to  man,  412. 
Infection,  and   air  passages  of   birds, 

118. 
Injuries,  internal,  248,  249. 


Investments: 

early,  18. 

losing,  215. 

Iron,  tincture  of,  good  canker  medi- 
cine, 127. 

J 

Jail,  swinging,  for  sitters,  170. 
Judges,  instructions  to,  257. 
Judgment,  acquiring,  182. 

K 

Kitten : 

beware  of    training,  to    kill  chicks, 

138. 
hunting    instinct    can    be    limited, 

138. 
Knowledge,  passing  it  on,  156. 


Law: 

for  breeds,  22. 

for  poultry,  the  sum  of,  22. 

Mendel's,  192. 

of  animal  life,  178. 
Layer : 

extra,  203,  205. 

good,  must  be  good  eater,  203. 
Layers : 

best,  in  competitions,  30. 

daytime  housing  of,  109. 

superior,  26. 

two-hundred-egg,  238. 
Leghorns,  27. 

Brown,  single-mating,  29. 

most  useful  specimens  of,  30. 

Rose  Comb  Brown,  two  types  of,  29. 

size  of  eggs,  27. 

white,  as  layers,  293. 

white,  at  Storrs,  301. 
Libraries,  poultry,  for  New  Jersey,  276. 
Lice: 

chick,  warding  off,  48. 

fight  against,  unceasing,  130. 

killing  by  machinery,  409. 

on  brooder  chicks,  74. 
Life,  making  tolerable,  85. 
Like,  producing  unlike,  197. 
Lime,  for  disinfection,  no. 


446 


INDEX 


Line-breeding,  value  of,  191. 
Lion,  in  beginner's  way,  34. 
Literature  on  poultry,  355. 
Litter : 

its  provision  a  problem,  107. 

material,  matting  together,  107. 
Liver,  minced,  for  layers,  233. 
Location  :   a  small  factor,  219. 

everything,  218. 
Lore,  goose,  330. 
Loss: 

causes  for,  finding,  356. 

important  cause  of,  65. 

nineteen  per  cent,  297. 

of  fowls,  percentages  of,  105. 
Losses : 

comparative,  between  large  and  small 
animals,  75. 

mysterious,  of  chicks,  113. 

none  in  raising,  217. 

of  fowls,  in  competitive  test,  105. 

poultry,  sheep,  pigs,  215. 
Luck: 

good,  5. 

to  the  Beginner,  430. 
Lungs,  the  chick's,  69,  70. 
Lure,  for  Beginners,  379. 


M 
Machines : 

all-around  good,  61. 

hot  air  vs.  hot  water,  54. 
Man,  his  best  care  of  himself,  104. 
Markers,  poultry,  409. 
Mash,  Australian,  for  layers,  232. 
Mating : 

double,  a  hoodoo,  191. 

for  customers,  190. 

rules  must  be  learned,  191. 
Maturity : 

average,  117. 

laying,  index  of,  184. 
Measure,  unit  of,  185. 
Meat: 

meals,  88. 

producing,  25. 
Medicines : 

cure  through  disinfecting,  no. 

poultry,  as  special  supplies,  405. 


Mediterraneans,  26. 
Medium,  a  good  selling,  370. 
Men,  business  and  poultry,  241. 
Method,  feeding,  Sanborn,  72,  73. 
Methods : 

business-like,  216. 

demonstrated,  356. 

of  marketing,  357. 

of  shipment,  381. 

vs.  principles,  113. 
Mice: 

annual  estimated  damage  of,  146. 

enemies  of,  145. 

plague  of,   demands  destruction  of 

millions,  145. 

Middleman,  profits  of,  244. 
Milk,  bacterial,  passed  as  good,  121. 
Mill: 

high  fiber,  87. 

stuffs,  quality  for  mashes,  121. 
Miller,  poultryman  dependent  on,  119. 
Mills,  visiting,  good  training,  120. 
Minorcas,  27. 

Mites,  spraying  to  prevent,  128. 
Mold,  in  mows  and  stacks,  118. 
Molds,  do  not  yield  to  treatment 

easily,  117. 

Molters,  late,  best  layers,  398. 
Molting,  Cornell  stu  lies  in,  397. 
Molts,  repeated,  398. 
Money : 

in  backyard  fowls,  426. 

saving,  68,  172. 
Money  making,  from  Runner  Ducks, 

316. 

Mortality,  great  cause  of,  297. 
Mouse,  the  plague,  a  microtus,  145. 
Mustards,  curled,  as  green  feed,  98. 

N 

Nest,  for  goose  eggs,  46. 
Nest  trap: 

faults  of,  206. 

surprises  of,  203. 
Nests: 

detached,  lighter,  40. 

in  series,  40. 

materials  for,  44. 

placed  vertically,  168. 


INDEX 


447 


Nests : 

should  be  comfortable  and  inviting,  6. 

under  droppings  platform,  153. 

upright  series  of,  168. 
Netting : 

galvanizing  processes,  308. 

must  be  stretched  firmly,  166. 

wire,  advantages  of,  309,  311. 
Non-sitters,  38. 
Normal,  what  is?  115. 
Normality  the  true  basis  of  expecta- 
tion, 116. 

O 

Oats: 

burying  for  green  feed,  97. 

"Processed,"  237. 

sprouted,  and  success,  240. 
Observation  leads  to  interest,  4. 
Onions : 

cheap  green  feed,  100. 

may  taint  eggs,  100. 
Orchards,  for  poultry,  278. 
Orders,  important  supplies,  should  be 

early,  406. 
Organs : 

egg,  result  of  stimulation  upon,  362. 

internal,  crowded,  362. 
Orpingtons : 

Black,  in  Missouri,  302. 

in  1095,  24. 

in  1911,  24. 

rise  of,  23. 
Ostriches : 

as  economic  birds,  354. 

produce  of,  354. 
Outgo,  months  of,  16. 


Package,  poultry,  Cornell,  388. 
Packages : 

marking,  388. 

standard,  389. 
Paint,  lice: 

applying  to  roosts,  128. 

home-made,  128. 
Palatability,  78. 
Panels : 

netting,  166. 

wire,  handy,  166,  167. 


Partridges,  English,  prices  of,  346. 
Pears,  sugar  content  of,  94. 
People,  the,  pay,  430. 
Perfection,  a  dream,"  190. 
Periodicals,  poultry,  many,  283. 
Pestilence  through  lack  of  knowledge 

of  one  fact,  113. 
Pheasants,  introducing,  350,  351. 
Picking,  dry,  386. 
Pigweed,  101. 
Pinfeathers,  black,  25. 
Plague :     s 

cost  thousands  of  dollars,  140. 

of  mice,  in  Nevada,  144. 
Plagues,  of  mice,  long  known,  143. 
Plucking  injures  laying  and  fertility, 

396. 
Plumping,  384. 
Points : 

good  and  bad,  12. 

vital,  in  choosing  breed,  30. 
Poisons : 

for  rodents,  most  approved,  142. 

rat,  bacterial  forms  of,  140. 
Potashes  to  help  fruit  trees,  102. 
Potatoes,  chopped,  good  feed,  95. 
Poultry : 

commercial,  24. 

cooling  for  shipment,  384. 

does  it  pay?  211,  213. 

house,  cloth  front,  desirable,  109. 

houses,  warming  artificially,  109. 

icing,  384. 

not  paying,  why  ?  204. 

packing,  384. 

per  cent  on  farms,  227. 

scalding,  386. 

state  aid  for,  281. 

with  fruit,  22,  277. 
Poultryman,  city,  lacks  much  common 

knowledge,  119. 
Poults,  turkey,  weak,  336. 
Premise,  a  wrong,  79. 
Prevention: 

agencies  for,  106. 

means  "good  luck,"  136. 

the  great  reliance,  128. 
Price,  more,  small  quantities,  125. 
Price  current,  383.    , 
Prices,  geese  and  eggs,  329. 


448 


INDEX 


Principles,  efficiency,  apply  first,  413. 
Privilege,  of  water,  for  ducklings,  310. 
Prize,  competition,  held  by  Rose  Comb 

Brown  Leghorns,  29. 
Prizes,    competitive,    won    by    White 

Leghorns,  30. 
Production,  winter,  average,  223. 

egg,  relation  to  food  and  weight,  398. 

group,  rules  for,  265. 
Products,  marketing,  357. 
Profit : . 

and  consumption,  292. 

clear,  $4.17  per  layer,  227. 
Profits,  best  come  whence?   227. 
Progress,  in  breeding,  206. 
Protein : 

comparative,  in  green  and  dry  feeds, 
94. 

costly,  82. 

values,  90. 

Public,  preying  upon,  367. 
Pullet : 

a  good, 177. 

maturing,  period  of,  18. 
Pullets : 

age  of  laying  maturity,  180. 

early-laying,  179. 


Quail : 

as  poultry,  344. 

at  Storrs  Experiment  Station,  346. 

breeding  in  confinement,  346,  348. 

brooding  artificially,  348. 

European,  establishing  here,  349. 

importations  of,  347. 

scarcity,  causes  for,  346. 

vanishing,  346. 

young,  feed  for,  348. 
Quality,  high  average,  208. 

R 

Rat: 

carries  bubonic  plague,  138. 
chief  sources  of  feed,  140. 
deal  with,  on  suspicion,  139. 
fears  change  and  upset,  139. 
grave  necessity  for  extermination  of, 

139- 
man's  duel  with,  136. 


Rate,  death,  chick,  240. 
Ration,  the  proper,  76. 
Rat-proofing  buildings,  139. 
Rats: 

harbors  for,  157. 

may  insure  loss,  142. 
Records : 

egg,  30. 

of  outgoes  only,  unfair,  208. 
Regulators : 

average,  good,  61. 

defective,  407. 

Remedies,  household,  for  poultry,  124. 
Removal,  early,  from  machine,  65. 
Re-setting  hens,  46. 
Rest: 

alighting,  169. 

for  sitters,  171. 

Returns,  best  average,  in  New  Eng- 
land, 128. 

Risks  and  the  Beginner,  267. 
Roofing,  patent,  liked,  159. 
Room,  chicks  dying  to  make,  71. 
"Rots,"  for  table  delicacies,  247. 
Roughage,  87. 

Ruggedness,   best  surety  against  dis- 
ease, ii. 

Rule,  universal,  for  detail  work,  218. 
Runners,  Indian,  cheaply  raised,  223. 

laying  record  of,  397. 


Sacs,  air,  reach  all  parts  of  body,  118. 
Schools,  correspondence,  267. 
Scraps,  table,  value  of,  77,  78. 
Seclusion,  39. 

Seepage,  from  barnyard,  poisonous,  121. 
Selection : 

by  appearance,  206. 

rigid,  for  success,  210. 
Shade,  dense,  fatal,  49. 
Shape,  the  determiner  of  breed,  20. 
Shell : 

egg,  texture  variations,  250. 
Shells,  egg,  poor,  mean  loss,  249. 
Shelter : 

cheap  'A,'  161. 

for  chicks,  69. 

necessary,  n. 


INDEX 


449 


Shipment,  preparing  for,  381. 
Shipments,  for  holidays,  396. 
Shippers,  where  failing,  388. 
Shipping,  on  commission,  383. 
Sitters : 

condition  of,  35. 

condition  of,  important,  42. 

daily  needs  of,  45. 

good  and  poor,  35. 

handling,  43. 

keep  quiet,  42. 

shelter  for,  39. 

shelter  for,  movable,  40. 

with  Asiatic  blood,  35. 
Size,    excessive,    in    turkeys,    a    bar, 

334- 
Soils,  made  bare  by  ranging,  98. 

unfavorable  for  poultry,  commonly 

used,  149. 
Space : 

due  each  hen,  159. 

for  roosting  room  only,  161. 
Spot,  weak,  in  Systems,  427. 
Squirrel,  carries  deadly  plague,  138. 
Squirrels,    ground,    destroy    millions' 

worth,  142. 
Standard: 

needed  in  utility  breeding,  30. 

of  perfection,  breeding  without,  367. 
Standards,  separate  breed,  30. 
Start,  getting  a,  364. 
Station,  testing,  Cornell,  282. 
Stations,  Experiment,  interest  in  poul- 
try, 152. 

Stock,  fancy,  for  Beginner,  364. 
Strain,  line-bred,  190. 
Strains : 

crossing,  195. 

differences  in,  294. 
Struggle,  for  life,  66. 
Students,  Cornell,  development  of, 

272. 
Supplies : 

choice  in,  405. 

model,  Cornell,  403. 

modern,  403. 

second  hand,  18. 
Supply  and  demand,  380. 
Sympathy,     necessary,     dealing    with 
living  things,  2. 
2G 


System,  chain,  of  egg  farms,  226. 

one  requirement  of,  426. 

what  may  it  teach?  115. 
"Systems"  and  system,  422. 
Systems,  natural,  45. 


Table,  Cornell  grading,  for  eggs,  244. 

Temperature,  low,  delays  hatch,  59. 

Temperatures,  fatal  changes  in,  60. 

Tester,  the  easiest,  47. 

Testers,  egg,  cheap  and  otherwise,  408. 

Testing,  just  how,  47. 

Tests : 

practical,  232. 

public,  average  laying  in,  296. 
Thrift,  proportioned  to  balance  of  feeds, 

93- 

Trade,  fanciers',  exigencies  of,  56. 
Trees,  fruit,  in  poultry  yards,  101,  102. 

need  all  fertilizing  elements,  102. 

wiring  off,  in  poultry  yards,  101. 
Truth,  a  basic,  425. 
Turkey,  modern  variety  of,  337. 
Turkeys : 

laying  capacity  of,  336. 

Red,  Bourbon,  337. 

setting,  336. 

standard  weights  of,  334. 

varieties  of,  334. 

U 

Unit,  breeding,  for  geese,  328. 
Utility,  369. 
vs.  fancy,  24. 


Value,  fowl,  greatest  increase  due  to 

feathers,  401. 
Values: 

fictitious,  380. 

of  records,  208. 

Varieties,    of   Leghorns    identical,    in 
theory,  27. 

standard,  number  of,  20. 
Vegetables,  extra  high  protein,  87. 
Vent,  affections  of,  127. 


450 


INDEX 


Ventilation : 

a  crucial  point,  61. 

diffused,  overhead,  109. 

increasing,  65,  66. 

in  fireless  brooder,  71. 

summer  doors  for,  155. 
Vermin : 

inviting  raids  of,  133. 

ravages  of,  131. 
Vigor,  imperative,  297. 

W 

Wall,  loose  stone,  not  rat  proof,  164. 
Warmth,  brooding,  69. 
Water : 

in  vegetables,  table  showing,  93. 

lack  of,  poultryman  cannot  afford,  95. 
Way,  right,  only  one?    220. 
Weather,  farmer  dependent  on,  119. 
Weeds,  as  green  feed,  100. 
Wheats,  high  in  protein,  87. 
Wire: 

corrosion  of,  303. 

practical  gauges,  308. 


Women : 

and  poultry,  264,  265. 

percentage  of,  interested,  284. 
Work,  experimental,  difficulties  of,  116. 

hard,  necessary,  220. 

practice,  value  of,  277. 

saving,  68. 

waste  of,  412. 
Worms : 

many  species  of,  in  fowls,  126. 

quickest  effective  treatment,  127. 

turpentine  remedy  for,  126. 
Wyandotte,  Columbian,  admission  of, 
23- 

tabulated  symposium  on,  230. 

the  ideal,  182. 

the,  re-shaping,  182. 


Yard,  surrounding  house,  96. 
Yards : 

movable,  from  adjustable  panels,  167. 

poultry,  how  to  sweeten,  102. 
Yields  of  eggs,  average,  116. 


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By  L.  H.  BAILEY 

Illustrated,  cloth,  i2mo,  544  pages,  $2.00  net;  by  mail,  $2.17 

This  new  work  is  a  combination  and  revision  of  the  main  parts  of  two  other  books  by 
the  same  author,  "  Garden  Making"  and  "  Practical  Garden  Book,"  together  with  much 
new  material  and  the  result  of  the  experience  of  ten  added  years  Among  the  persons  who 
collaborated  in  the  preparation  of  the  other  two  books,  and  whose  contributions  have  been 
freely  used  in  this  one,  are  C.  E.  Hunn,  a  gardener  of  long  experience;  Professor  Ernest 
Walker,  reared  as  a  commercial  florist;  Professor  L.  R.  Taft,  and  Professor  F.  A.  Waugh, 
well-known  for  their  studies  and  writings  on  horticultural  subjects. 

A   STANDARD   WORK   REVISED   AND   ENLARGED 

The  Farm  and  Garden  Rule  Book 

By  LIBERTY  H    BAILEY 

Illustrated,  cloth,  izmo,  $2.00  net 

When  Professor  Bailey's  "  Horticulturist's  Rule  Book  "  was  published  nearly  twenty- 
five  years  ago,  the  volume  became  a  standard  agricultural  work  running  through  sixteen 
editions.  Taking  this  book  as  a  basis  the  author  has  now  made  a  wholly  new  book,  ex- 
tending it  to  cover  the  field  of  general  farming,  stock  raising,  dairying,  poultry  rearing, 
horticulture,  gardening,  forestry,  and  the  like.  It  is  essentially  a  small  cyclopedia  of 
ready  rules  and  references  packed  full  from  .cover  to  cover  of  condensed  meaty  informa- 
tion and  precepts  on  almost  every  leading  subject  connected  with  country  life. 

IN    PREPARATION 

Manual  of  Home-Making.    Manual  of  Cultivated  Plants 


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A  Self-Supporting  Home 

BY  KATE  V.  ST.   MAUR 

Cloth,  I2mo,fully  illustrated  from  photographs,  $1.75  net 

"  Each  chapter  is  the  detailed  account  of  all  the  work  necessary  for 
one  month  —  in  the  vegetable  garden,  among  the  small  fruits,  with 
the  fowls,  guineas,  rabbits,  cavies,  and  in  every  branch  of  husbandry 
to  be  met  with  on  the  small  farm."  —  Louisville  Courier-Journal. 

The  Earth's  Bounty 

BY  KATE  V.    ST.    MAUR  Cloth,  I2mo,  illustrated,  $1.75  net 

The  present  volume,  though  in  no  sense  dependent  on  "A  Self- 
Supporting  Home,"  is  in  a  sense  a  sequel  to  it.  The  feminine  owner 
is  still  the  heroine,  and  the  new  book  chronicles  the  events  after  suc- 
cess permitted  her  to  acquire  more  land  and  put  to  practical  test  the 
ideas  gleaned  from  observation  and  reading. 

The  Fat  of  the  Land :    The  Story  of  an 
American  Farm 

BY  JOHN  WILLIAMS  STREETER  Cloth,  i2mo,  $1.50  net 

"The  Fat  of  the  Land"  is  the  sort  of  book  that  ought  to  be  epoch- 
making  in  its  character,  for  it  tells  what  can  be  accomplished  through 
the  application  of  business  methods  to  the  farming  business.  Never 
was  the  freshness,,  the  beauty,  the  joy,  the  freedom  of  country  life  put 
in  a  more  engaging  fashion.  From  cover  to  cover  it  is  a  fascinating 
book,  practical  withal,  and  full  of  common  sense. 

Three  Acres  and  Liberty 

BY  BOLTON   HALL  Cloth,  I2mo,  illustrated,  $1.75  net  / 

Possibilities  of  the  small  suburban  farm,  and  practical  suggestions  to 
city  dwellers  how  to  acquire  and  make  profitable  use  of  them. 


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The  Feeding  of  Animals 

By   WHITMAN   HOWARD   JORDAN 

Cloth,  i2mo,  illustrated,  450  pages,  $1.50  net ;  by  mail, 

"  A  valuable  contribution  to  agricultural  literature.  Not  a  state- 
ment of  rules  or  details  of  practice,  but  an  effort  to  present  the 
main  facts  and  principles  fundamental  to  the  art  of  feeding  ani- 
mals." —  New  England  Farmer. 

Rural  Hygiene 

By  HENRY  N.  OGDEN,  C.E. 

Professor  of  Sanitary  Engineering,  College  of  Civil  Engineering,  Cornell 

University,  and  Special  Assistant  Engineer  of  the  New  York 

State  Department  of  Health 

Illustrated,  decorated  cloth,  I2mo,  $1.50  net;  by  mail,  $1.68 

"  Farmers  and  other  dwellers  outside  of  cities  will  find  Professor  Henry 
N.  Ogden's  '  Rural  Hygiene '  an  invaluable  treatise  on  all  matters  pertain- 
ing to  the  health  of  the  individual  and  the  community.  The  author,  a 
civil  engineer  in  the  faculty  of  Cornell  University,  deals  with  the  structural 
side  of  public  hygiene  rather  than  with  the  medical  side.  He  tells  how 
houses  and  barns  should  be  built  so  as  to  promote  the  good  health  of  their 
occupants;  how  to  manage  ventilation,  drainage,  water  supply,  etc.;  how 
waterworks  should  be  built,  what  are  the  best  kinds  of  power,  how  to  ar- 
range the  plumbing,  guard  against  sewage,  and  so  on.  ...  It  is  an  un- 
usually complete,  practical,  and  readable  treatise." 

—  Chicago  Record-Herald. 

Law  for  the  American  Farmer 

By  JOHN   B.   GREEN,  of  the  New  York  Bar. 

Decorated  cloth,  I2mo,  $1.50  net ;  by  mail,  $1.68 
"  The  book  is  superior  to  any  of  its  class."  —  Law  Review. 
"Very  comprehensive  and  valuable." — Kansas  Farmer. 
"  Written  with  great  thoroughness  and  accuracy." 

— -  Chicago  Inter- Ocean. 


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THE  RURAL  OUTLOOK  SET 

BY  PROFESSOR  L.    H.   BAILEY 
Director  of  the  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  University 

Four  volumes.     Rack,  cloth,  I2tno.     Uniform  binding,  attractively  boxed 
$5.00  net  per  set;  carriage  extra.  Each  volume  also  sold  separately 

In  this  set  are  included  three  of  Professor  Bailey's  most  popular  books 
as  well  as  a  hitherto  unpublished  one,  —  "The  Country-Life  Move- 
ment." The  long  and  persistent  demand  for  a  uniform  edition  of 
these  little  classics  is  answered  with  the  publication  of  this  attractive 
series. 

The  Country-Life  Movement 

Cloth,  i2mo,  220  pages,  $1.25  net ;  by  mail,  $1.34 

This  hitherto  unpublished  volume  deals  with  the  present  movement 
for  the  redirection  of  rural  civilization,  discussing  the  real  country-life 
problem  as  distinguished  from  the  city  problem,  known  as  the  back- 
to-the-land  movement. 

The    Outlook    tO    Nature    (New  and  Revised  Edition) 

Cloth,  I2mo,  795  pages,  $1,25  net ;  by  mail,  $f.J4 

In  this  alive  and  bracing  book,  full  of  suggestion  and  encouragement, 
Professor  Bailey  argues  the  importance  of  contact  with  nature,  a  sym- 
pathetic attitude  toward  which  "  means  greater  efficiency,  hopefulness, 
and  repose." 

The  State  and  the  Farmer  (New  Edition) 

Cloth,  i2mo,  $f.2f  net ;  by  mail,  $1.34 

It  is  the  relation  of  the  farmer  to  the  government  that  Professor  Bailey 
here  discusses  in  its  varying  aspects.  He  deals  specifically  with  the 
change  in  agricultural  methods,  in  the  shifting  of  the  geographical 
centers  of  farming  in  the  United  States,  and  in  the  growth  of  agricul- 
tural institutions. 

The  Nature  Study  Idea  (New  Edition) 

Cloth,  ismo,  $f.2j  net ;  by  mail,  $1.34 

"  It  would  be  well,"  the  critic  of  The  Tribune  Farmer  once  wrote, 
"  if  '  The  Nature  Study  Idea '  were  in  the  hands  of  every  person  who 
favors  nature  study  in  the  public  schools,  of  every  one  who  is  opposed 
to  it,  and,  most  important,  of  every  one  who  teaches  it  or  thinks  he 
does."  It  has  been  Professor  Bailey's  purpose  to  interpret  the  new 
school  movement  to  put  the  young  into  relation  and  sympathy  with 
nature,  —  a  purpose  which  he  has  admirably  accomplished. 


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RURAL  SCIENCE  SERIES 

.  EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 


On  Selection  of  Land,  etc. 

Isaac  P.  Roberts'  The  Farmstead  .         •  •    .     ..V       •        .  „       $i  50 
On  Tillage,  etc. 

F.  H.  King's  The  Soil    .        ,.      . .        .  .        .'•   .  .       ,.        , 

Isaac  P.  Roberts'  The  Fertility  of  the  Land   .     '*  -. •••••,      "  .     •    . 

F.  H.  King's  Irrigation  and  Drainage    .  ..•'.'-«         ... 

Edward  B.  Voorhees' Fertilizers    .        ..  .         ,        .        .         .-  . 

Edward  B.  Voorhees' Forage  Crops       '.  .  .         ...         .  •",'- 

J.  A.  Widtsoe's  Dry  Farming          .         .  .        .         •  >      '•         .  . 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Principles  of  Agriculture  .      .   ,         ,         .      -  .  ,. 
On  Plant  Diseases,  etc. 

E.  C.  Lodeman's  The  Spraying  of  Plants  .         .         .        .         0  .         I 
On  Garden- Making 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Garden  Making       .         .  *      *.     '.,..-     .  .         i 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Vegetable-Gardening      ,  ...         ,         ,-    .   .  .         i 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Forcing  Book  ..  .        .«        ,        .        ..         I 

On  Fruit-Growing,  etc. 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Nursery  Book           .         .  .  .      ,         .         .         .  .         I 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Fruit-Growing        "-.         ..  ..        .         *        •-        «  .         i 

L.  H.  Bailey's  The  Pruning-Book  .         . '  .'  '  .  .''.;•.     '.         .         .  .         i 

F.  W.  Card's  Bush  Fruits       .         .         .  ".         .         .        .       ..  .         i 

On  the  Care  of  Live-stock 

Nelson  S.  Mayo's  The  Diseases  of  Animals  .         .         I        .         .  !  .         I 

W.  II.  Jordan's  The  Feeding  of  Animals  ....         .  .         I 

'  I.  P.  Roberts'  The  Horse       .        ,         .  .         .         .         .-      .  .         i 

M.  W.  Harper's  Breaking  and  Training  of  Horses          ...  .          I 

George  C.  Watson's  Farm  Poultry          .  .         .         .         .         .  «,         i 

On  Dairy  Work,  Farm  Chemistry,  etc. 

Henry  H.  Wing's  Milk  and  Its  Products  ....         .         .  .         i 

J.  G.  Lipman's  Bacteria  and  Country  Life  .«-,*.         .  .         I 

On  Economics  and  Organization 

I.  P.  Roberts'  The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook I 

George  T.  Fairchild's  Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare  ....         I 

H.  N.  Ogden's  Rural  Hygiene       ........         I 

J.-  Green's  Law  for  the  American  Farmer I 


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Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture 

EDITED  BY  L.   H.   BAILEY 

Director  of  the  Coljege  of  Agriculture  and  Professor  of  Rural  Econom; 
Cornell  University. 

With  100  full-page  plates  and  more  than  2000  illustration 
in  the  text;  four  volumes;  the  set,  $20.00  net;  halfmorocc, 
$32.00  net;  carriage  extra 

VOLUME  I  —  Farms  VOLUME  III  —  Animal 

VOLUME  II  —  Crops  VOLUME  IV  —  The  P^arm  and  the  Communil 

"Indispensable  to  public  and  reference  libraries  .  .  .  readily  comprehensible  t 
any  person  of  average  education."  —  The  Nation. 

"The  completest  existing  thesaurus  of  up-to-date  facts  and  opinions  on  moder 
agricultural  methods.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  many  years  must  pass  before  it  ca 
be  surpassed  in  comprehensiveness,  accuracy,  practical  value,  and  mechanic: 
excellence.  It  ought  to  be  in  every  library  in  the  country." — Record-HcraL 
Chicago. 

Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 

With  over  2800  original  engravings;  four  volumes;  the  si 
$20.00  net;  half  morocco,  $32.00  net;  carriage  extra 

"This  really  monumental  performance  will  take  rank  as  a  standard  in  its  clas 
Illustrations  and  text  are  admirable.  .  .  .  Our  own  conviction  is  that  while  tl 
future  may  bring  forth  amplified  editions  of  the  work,  it  will  probably  never  I 
Superseded.  Recognizing  its  importance,  the  publishers  have  given  it  faultle 
form.  The  typography  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired,  the  paper  is  calculated  I 
stand  wear  and  tear,  and  the  work  is  at  once  handsomely  and  attractive 
bound."  —  New  York  Daily  Tribune. 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


LD  21-95«i-ll,'50 (2877sl6)476 


YB   163 


380113 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


